A hydrogen bomb instead of "Hello, world!": how and why the first computer was invented

Contents:

• A Computer for Artillery
• A Machine Weighing 30 Tonnes
• Calculations for Designing a Hydrogen Bomb and a Supersonic Airplane
• The Invisible Programmers of ENIAC
• The End of ENIAC

The history of the ENIAC computer begins in the 1930s with the initiative of American professor John Mauchly, who sought to predict the weather years in advance, not just weeks. Mauchly believed that to achieve this goal, it was necessary to unravel the patterns of solar flares and spots. ENIAC became one of the first electronic general-purpose computers, playing an important role in the development of computing and scientific research. The development of this computer opened new horizons in data processing and calculations, which later became the basis for modern technologies.

The professor had many years of meteorological observation data that required careful analysis. To do this, he purchased decommissioned calculators from banks and involved students in the work. However, the calculation process turned out to be slow due to the volume of information and frequent errors on the part of the students.

Mauchly realized that to increase the speed of work, a powerful computing device was needed. As a result, he began developing a vacuum tube-based machine capable of producing results immediately after data entry. However, he was unable to build this device due to a lack of funds.

In 1941, Mauchly began teaching at the university's School of Engineering. During this time, he met inventor John Eckert, who was also interested in developing an electronic computer. This meeting became an important step towards the creation of new technologies that would change the world of computing.

A Computer for Artillery

Soon, Mauchly had the opportunity to realize his idea. In 1942, the Allies landed in North Africa, and artillerymen needed ballistic tables adapted to the local climate. This requirement opened new horizons for the application of scientific knowledge in the military sphere, which improved the accuracy of fire and increased the efficiency of operations.

The school where Mauchly worked actively collaborated with the ballistics lab. At this institution, tables were developed by hundreds of employees, among whom were predominantly women with higher education in mathematics.

In the labs, the girls were called "computers" (from the English word "computer"). At that time, gender inequality existed in America, and women were not allowed to work in engineering. Instead, they were assigned painstaking, labor-intensive, and low-paid work. Nevertheless, the girls found satisfaction in this occupation, as it was a worthy alternative to a career as a provincial teacher.

Tables for all projectiles and guns were developed with high precision. For each type of projectile, it was necessary to calculate approximately three thousand flight paths, taking into account many factors. Key parameters include barrel elevation, projectile velocity, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, and wind speed and direction. This data is critical to ensuring firing accuracy and improving the efficiency of artillery systems.

People solved complex differential equations and then used slide rules and adding machines to calculate these functions. Some calculations were performed using a differential analyzer, but its limited accuracy required additional verification of the results. Each trajectory calculation included about 1000 operations, and the process of forming a complete table took hundreds of specialists four years.

The volume of work proved too great, and the staff were unable to cope. In this situation, Mauchly and Eckert decided to approach the management of their institute with a proposal to develop an electronic computer capable of significantly accelerating the calculation process. However, their initiative was not properly appreciated.

In April 1943, Mauchly, following the recommendations of acquaintances, applied for funding to the ballistics laboratory. He guaranteed that the computer he developed would be able to calculate a trajectory in just five minutes. This promise was an important step in the development of computing technology and demonstrated the potential for automated calculations in ballistics.

Mauchly's project description employed a clever designation: he called his invention an electronic differential analyzer to avoid mistrust from the military. While the military was traditionally reluctant to fund new and unproven technologies, differential analyzers were familiar to them. This allowed Mauchly to secure the necessary funding for his project, relying on established military concepts and needs.

The project immediately faced numerous critics. Opponents argued that vacuum tubes had a limited lifespan and that the failure of even one component could shut down the entire system. Famed physicist Enrico Fermi also expressed doubts, predicting that the tubes would not last longer than five minutes. Despite these negative predictions, funding for the scientists was secured.

In 1944, the design work was completed, and a team of engineers led by John Mauchly and John Eckert began construction of the computer. Mauchly headed the project, with Eckert serving as chief designer. John von Neumann later joined the team as a scientific consultant, significantly strengthening the project. The historical significance of this stage in the development of computer technology is difficult to overestimate, as it was here that the foundations for the creation of the first electronic computers were laid.

A 30-Ton Machine

In the fall of 1945, the ENIAC computer was created, which became the first electronic numerical integrator and calculator. This machine weighed 30 tons and was 30 meters long. Its design used 17,000 radio tubes, 10,000 capacitors, 7,000 resistors, 15,000 relays, and 6,000 switches. ENIAC was an important step in the development of computing technology and laid the foundation for future technologies, opening new horizons in the field of automation of calculations and data processing.

The ENIAC architecture had its shortcomings, which led to the use of a large number of parts. This early electronic computer included specialized modules for performing addition, multiplication, division, and square root operations. Intermediate results of operations were transferred between modules, which complicated the data processing process and reduced the overall efficiency of the system. Nevertheless, ENIAC became an important stage in the development of computer architecture, laying the foundation for subsequent computers.

In modern computers, numbers are stored in registers and processed in specialized arithmetic modules, after which the results are placed back into the registers. In contrast, in ENIAC, each number storage module performed processing functions, allowing arithmetic operations to be performed directly within the module itself. This approach increased computing efficiency by eliminating the need to transfer data between different system components.

The ENIAC, one of the first electronic computers, used a decimal system instead of a binary one. Ten lamps were used to display each decimal digit. For example, if lamp #1 was lit, it indicated zero, lamp #2 indicated one, lamp #3 corresponded to two, and so on. This approach resulted in significant consumption of electronic components. Representing the number 1000 in binary (1111101000) required only 10 lamps, one for each binary digit. However, the ENIAC system required 40 lamps to represent the same number, since there were 10 lamps for each decimal digit. This highlights the inefficiency of ENIAC's design compared to more modern computing systems using binary encoding. ENIAC, one of the first electronic computers, could perform 357 multiplications or 5,000 additions per second. Its memory held 20 ten-digit numbers, limiting the amount of data it could process. Importantly, ENIAC did not store programs in its memory, unlike modern computers, where programs and data are stored in the same space. These characteristics make ENIAC an important stage in the history of computing, opening the way to further development of computer systems.

At that time, there were no operating systems and programming languages, so all processes were performed manually. Setting switches and connecting wires required considerable effort. Data was entered on punched cards using an IBM card reader, and results were output using an IBM punch. This approach to programming and data processing was complex and required a high degree of precision and attention to detail. ENIAC, while inferior to Howard Aiken's Mark I electromechanical computer in reliability, was significantly faster, achieving a performance a thousand times greater. For example, ENIAC calculated a trajectory that would have taken a mechanical differential analyzer 15 minutes in just 20 seconds. Its accuracy was comparable to that of a human using a mechanical calculator.

Calculations for the design of a hydrogen bomb and a supersonic aircraft

On February 14, 1946, ENIAC was introduced to the world, making this day Programmer's Day. This first general-purpose electronic computer demonstrated its impressive capabilities by calculating the sum of 5,000 numbers in just one second. In addition, ENIAC was able to calculate the trajectory of a projectile faster than the projectile itself reached its target. This event was a significant step in the history of computing and marked the beginning of the era of programming and computer technology development.

Those present were amazed. They witnessed how only one button was enough to activate the machine and begin calculations. Admiring journalists described ENIAC as an "electronic brain," "artificial intelligence," and a "wizard." This event became a landmark moment in the history of computing and opened new horizons for the development of technologies that continue to change the world today.

When ENIAC was completed, the war came to an end, and the need for artillery calculations became less pressing. As a result, it was applied to a new task: testing a design for a hydrogen bomb.

The task required significant computing resources, which involved solving differential equations. Programmers divided it into several stages: in the first stage, solutions were found manually, and then the algorithm was translated into the language of switches and wires to automate the processes. This significantly simplified and accelerated the calculations, making them more efficient and less prone to errors.

Intermediate results were recorded on punched cards, which were then re-entered into the computer after reconfiguration. None of the electromechanical devices of the time could handle such a task.

ENIAC had the ability to perform complex calculations, including loops, branches, and subroutines. However, its operation required the preliminary manual solution of numerous equations. This limitation made its use labor-intensive, despite its powerful computing capabilities.

A million punch cards were used to develop the hydrogen bomb. The computer successfully completed this complex task, and as a result, the hydrogen bomb was created. To this day, a significant portion of the calculations remain classified.

ENIAC was used to forecast weather in the Soviet Union to determine the possible locations of radioactive fallout in the event of a nuclear war. In addition, this computer performed engineering calculations and compiled ballistic tables, including for atomic weapons. British physicist Douglas Hartree used ENIAC to calculate the aerodynamics of a supersonic aircraft, which contributed to the development of aviation technology. These advances in computing and science demonstrate the importance of ENIAC in military and engineering applications.

Von Neumann used ENIAC to calculate pi and e (Euler's number) to 2000 decimal places. His goal was to study the statistical distribution of the digits in these numbers, which helped determine whether computers were capable of generating random numbers. His research showed that computers could indeed do this. Later, together with a group of meteorologists, von Neumann performed the first numerical weather forecast, a significant step in the development of meteorology and computing methods in this field.

The Invisible Programmers of ENIAC

The ENIAC presentation omitted the contributions of the women who developed programs to demonstrate the computer's operation. Although they were present at the event, their role was limited to seating guests and handing out punch cards with calculation results, obscuring their significant contributions to the history of computing. This situation highlights the undervalued status of women in technology and science, as well as the importance of recognizing their achievements.

Information about the programming team of the first electronic computer only became known in the late 1980s. In 1946, Harvard University graduate Kathy Kleiman discovered photographs from a demonstration of the ENIAC that featured only men. Trying to find out where the women who contributed to the creation of this revolutionary technology were, she contacted a renowned computer historian. In response, she learned that the women were called "refrigerator ladies" because they served as models for advertisements for household appliances such as refrigerators and washing machines. This case highlights the underrecognition of women's contributions to the history of computer science and technology, as well as the importance of their role in the development of computing.

Unsatisfied with this answer, Katie began researching women programmers working on calculations in the fields of nuclear fusion, ballistic missile trajectories, and supersonic aircraft wing shapes. Through her research, she was able to locate these professionals, interview them, and publish an interview in which they share their experiences and achievements in high technology. This highlights the important role of women in STEM disciplines and highlights their contributions to modern scientific and engineering achievements.

The best calculators from the Ballistic Research Laboratory were selected to work on ENIAC, including Kay Antonelli, Frances Bilas, Jean Jennings, Ruth Lichterman, Betty Holberton, and Marlene Wescoff. These women became the first computer programmers in history. Their contributions to the advancement of programming and computer technology cannot be overstated, and their achievements paved the way for future generations of women in STEM.

The team responsible for programming and maintaining ENIAC faced serious difficulties. Every time a new program needed to be entered, they had to rewire the device, resetting thousands of switches and running numerous wires. Vacuum tubes and capacitors failed almost daily, forcing operators to spend hours searching for faulty components to replace. Setting up ENIAC took several days, and debugging programs could last for weeks.

During the development of ENIAC, solutions were found that became the basis for modern programming. Betty Holberton made significant contributions by inventing the concept of the breakpoint, and Kay Antonelli developed the idea of ​​the subroutine. These innovations played a key role in shaping the programming methods we use today.

Betty Holberton and Jean Jennings played key roles in developing the sorting routine, as well as in transforming ENIAC into a stored-program computer and creating UNIVAC. Betty Holberton suggested changing the color of the ENIAC panels from black to a taupe, which later became the standard for the computer industry. These changes not only improved the aesthetics of the devices but also became an important part of their functionality and user experience.

The work of women in science and engineering has long gone unnoticed and undervalued. It has often been perceived as secondary and "feminine." While leading physicists and engineers were designing and building computing equipment, the work of women, despite its significance, was not properly recognized. This bias against women in STEM fields limited their opportunities for career advancement and influence on technology. It's time to rethink stereotypes and recognize women's contributions to science and technology.

The End of ENIAC

ENIAC operated until 1955. Despite numerous upgrades, it had become obsolete by this time. Its demise was followed by the advent of more modern and powerful electronic computers that offered greater performance and data processing efficiency. ENIAC, as the first general-purpose digital computer, played a significant role in the history of computing, but as technology advanced, it became irrelevant.

Models with a similar architecture were no longer produced, as the von Neumann architecture, which became the basis for modern computers, was soon developed at the University of Pennsylvania. This architecture became the standard for most computing systems due to its efficiency and versatility.

ENIAC was the first all-electronic general-purpose computer, demonstrating the ability to solve a wide range of problems. This breakthrough project confirmed that a computing machine could be built using electronic components, ensuring its efficiency and cost-effectiveness. ENIAC opened new horizons in computing and ushered in the era of electronic computers, which subsequently changed the approach to data processing and computing in many areas.

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