Plankalkül – the first high-level programming language: history, interesting facts / ITech content

Contents:

• Konrad Zuse and his universities
• Computers starting with Z
• Language for modern speaking
• What happened next

Modern developers, working in the conditions of Open Source, a global market and the free exchange of ideas, can hardly imagine that just a hundred years ago the situation was radically different. The development of technology and open platforms has radically changed the approach to software development, which in turn has facilitated the creation of more innovative solutions. In today's world, developers have access to a vast array of resources and tools that allow them to quickly and effectively implement their ideas. Cyberneticists, formerly known as IT specialists, worked not only in complete isolation but also in a highly competitive environment. This struggle for survival contributed to the creation of astonishing discoveries that became the foundation of modern IT. Despite the difficulties, their efforts led to significant advances in technology and computing, laying the foundation for the further development of information technology. In previous articles, we covered the figure of Alan Turing in detail. Today, we will focus on another outstanding figure whose achievements are no less significant, but far less widely known. We will talk about the creator of the world's first high-level programming language – Plankalkül, pronounced "plankalkul." Developed by Konrad Zuse in the 1940s, Plankalkül opened up new horizons in computing and programming, laying the foundation for the subsequent development of computer technology. Plankalkül was an important step toward the creation of modern programming languages, and its legacy lives on in modern development systems.

Konrad Zuse and His Universities

Had Zuse been born in a different era and place, his name would likely have become famous not only among specialists but also on the international stage. However, fate decreed otherwise.

Our hero was born in 1910 in Berlin and from an early age showed outstanding abilities for invention. While still in school, he created a working coin changer, a significant achievement considering that similar devices wouldn't be mass-produced in the Soviet Union for another half-century. He also designed a city with a population of 37 million, equivalent to 1.5 times the population of modern-day Beijing, three Moscows, or four New Yorks. In 1935, Zuse completed his studies at the Berlin Institute of Technology, a cult institution of its time. His outstanding ideas and inventions had a significant impact on technological development and laid the foundation for future innovations. The school not only boasted a reputable scientific foundation but also a tolerant attitude toward the subjects of student research. One of the professors, who had studied in Berlin during a similar period, viewed our lab work with mild irony. He sometimes sighed: "We had real laboratory work: obtaining heroin by acetylation of morphine, synthesizing cyanides from carbides..." This emphasized the contrast between the traditions of the scientific approach and modern teaching methods, which allowed students to explore more diverse and less traditional topics.

It is not surprising that the school's chemistry department produced such outstanding scientists as Anton Kölisch, who created MDMA, known as "ecstasy," as his diploma thesis, and Fritz Haber, a Nobel laureate known for his developments in nitrogen fertilizers and Zyklon B. These figures underscore the importance of chemistry education and its influence on the development of science and technology.

Berlin has produced many famous people, including Nobel Prize winners. These outstanding individuals could form more than one football team. The city became a true center of education and culture, attracting talented people from all over the world.

Let's look at Zuse's classmates, with whom his further professional development will be connected after graduating from the School and up until 1945. Their influence and interaction with Zuse played an important role in shaping his career and scientific work. These connections determined not only his personal achievements, but also had a significant impact on the development of technologies of that time.

• Albert Speer - architect and concurrently Minister of Armaments in the Third Reich, the author of the idea of ​​​​the forced deportation of Jews, curator of the concentration camp project;
• Wernher von Braun - rocket scientist, creator of the world's first ballistic missiles;
• Helmut Gröttrup - rocket engineer, von Braun's closest associate;
• Walter Dornberger - administrator, Major General of the Wehrmacht, immediate superior of Gröttrup and von Braun, subordinate to Speer.

The three key specialists, working from the late 1930s, formed the basis of the rocket research center in Peenemünde. It was here that all the famous German wunderwaffe were developed, including the V-1 flying bomb and the world's first ballistic missile, the V-2. These advances in rocketry had a significant impact on the development of military technology and space technology in the following decades.

No private individual or government agency could have afforded the millions of marks spent on developing large rockets if it were devoted solely to scientific research. Humanity faced a task requiring significant expenditures to achieve a great goal and take the first practical step towards its realization. We have opened the way to a future that promises new technologies and breakthroughs in space exploration.

Walter Dornberger, author of "Shot into Space," published in 1952, takes readers on a fascinating journey into the world of space research and technology. In his work, he explores concepts related to the development of rocketry and the possibilities of space exploration. As one of the leading experts of his time, Dornberger shares his views on the future of humanity in the context of space missions. His book is an important contribution to the literature on space and science, reflecting the desire for new discoveries and innovations. "Shot into Space" continues to inspire both professionals and science enthusiasts by highlighting the significance of scientific achievements and their impact on society.

German rocket scientists had sufficient means, motivation and engineering ideas. However, missile control requires a special approach. The design involves complex calculations that only electronic computers can perform. Now we need to turn to our protagonist again.

Computers starting with Z

The idea of ​​​​creating a machine for routine calculations came to Zuse during his student years. This idea captured him so much that after a year of working at an aircraft factory, he decided to go part-time to focus on the implementation of his plan. Zuse understood that the automation of routine processes can significantly simplify life and increase work efficiency.

Three years later, the first computer model was created, named Zuse after the first letter of his last name (Zuse) - Z1. This device weighed half a ton and was assembled from scrap materials. It ran on a motor from an old vacuum cleaner, and data entry was carried out using a typewriter keyboard. The switches were 20,000 metal plates, which Zuse and his friends cut by hand with jigsaws. The Z1 was a major step in the history of computing and laid the foundation for future computer developments.

Despite its impressive size, the Z1 had a memory of 64 words of 22 bits. It could perform addition in five seconds and multiplication in ten seconds. This machine was a major step in the development of computing, demonstrating the potential for automated calculations.

Inspired by this initial success, Zuse immediately began developing a more advanced model, the Z2. After two years of searching, he managed to attract interested investors, including Genossen from Peenemünde. This support was an important step in his quest to create an innovative device that could change the approach to computing.

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Hitler's Computers: How Germany Became the Center for the Development of Programmable Machines

During World War II, Germany made significant contributions to the development of technology, particularly in the field of programmable machines. One of the key drivers of this progress was military needs, which required efficient information processing and process automation.

The programs and devices developed at that time laid the foundations for modern computing technologies. One of the most famous examples is the Z3, created by Konrad Zuse, which became the world's first programmable computer. This device used a binary system and could perform complex mathematical calculations, significantly speeding up design and analysis processes.

The influence of German technology on the further development of computing cannot be overstated. The scientific achievements of that time became the foundation for the creation of modern computers and software. Thus, despite the dark pages of history, Germany made an important contribution to the evolution of programmable machines, which continues to this day.

The Z4 became the prototype of modern personal computers. To use it fully, simple jigsaw skills were not enough. Therefore, Zuse began developing his own programming language, which became an important step in the evolution of computing technology. This language significantly expanded the functionality of the Z4 and laid the foundation for the further development of programming.

The engineer approached this work with a thorough approach. He understood that the new programming language should be compatible not only with the Z4 computer, but also with any other computing devices. Zuse initially developed a logical system of numerical and symbolic notations that could effectively solve a variety of problems. This universal approach ensured the possibility of using the created language in various fields, which made it a significant contribution to the development of computing technology.

The programming concept of the Plankalkül language is clearly reflected in its name, which is translated from German as "planned calculations." This language was developed for creating algorithms and solving complex problems, emphasizing the importance of a systems approach to computing. Plankalkül was one of the first formal programming languages, making it a significant step in the development of computer science.

Zuse proposed the concept of dividing a computer's work into two key components: software, which is a plan for the operation of a computing device, and hardware, that is, the computational processes themselves performed by this device. This division anticipated the modern definitions of hardware and software, which became the basis for the further development of computer technology and programming.

Plankalkül arose as a result of purely theoretical research, having no connection with future computing machines capable of executing programs in this language. This programming language was developed to solve problems, without a predetermined need for its implementation on real machines. Plankalkül was an important step in the history of programming, demonstrating the potential of a formal approach to the development of algorithms and programming languages.

Konrad Zuse shares his initial premises in computer development. His ideas and concepts formed the foundation for the further development of computing technology. The book "The Language of the Computer," translated from English by K. G. Bataev and edited by V. M. Kurochkin, examines the key aspects that influenced his work. Zuse emphasizes the importance of the mathematical foundations and logical structures that formed the foundation of the first programmable machines. His contributions to the creation of computers defined new horizons for science and technology, paving the way for modern computing. The result was impressive: the German cyberneticist significantly outpaced his competitors, demonstrating innovative achievements that were decades ahead of their time. This was made possible by his unique approach to research and development in the field of cybernetics. He applied new methods and technologies, which allowed him to create solutions that changed the understanding of the possibilities of this science.

A language for modern talking

Plankalkül is the world's first high-level programming language, which had a unique symbolic vocabulary. At that time, the term "algorithmic language" had not yet been introduced, which emphasizes the innovative nature of Plankalkül. This language also introduced the address translation technique, which made it an important milestone in the history of programming and contributed to the further development of high-level languages.

Variables are denoted by a letter-number combination, where the letter indicates the type of the variable. For example, the letter «i» can denote integer variables, while «f» can be used to denote floating-point variables. This allows you to quickly identify the data type and simplifies the programming process. Correct variable naming plays a key role in writing clear and maintainable code.

• V — input parameter;
• Z — intermediate value;
• R — result value;
• C — constant.

Zuse introduced the assignment operator, which is similar to modern operators such as => or := in the American keyboard layout. Let's consider an example of its application to compare two variables V1 and V2. If the values ​​of these variables are equal, the value TRUE will be written to the result R1; if they are not equal, the value FALSE will be written to R1. This expression is written as follows:

The equation V1 = V2 describes the equality of two quantities, where V1 and V2 can represent different parameters, such as speed, volume, or other values. In this case, R1 acts as a result value or a condition associated with these quantities. Such an equation can be used in various fields, including physics, mathematics, and engineering, to analyze and solve problems related to the equilibrium or interaction of various systems. Understanding such equations is important for developing effective models and algorithms, as well as for optimizing processes in various areas of human activity.

For numeric variables, the notation S1.n is used, where n indicates the dimension in bits. The value n = 0 corresponds to a dimension of 1 bit. This allows for precise determination of the amount of information represented by each numeric variable and ensures efficient use of memory in software systems.

In programming, a tuple is denoted by parentheses. For example, the entry (2.0, 5.0) is a tuple consisting of two variables, where the first variable is 2 bits in size, and the second is 5 bits in size. This notation allows for efficient grouping and management of data in various contexts, such as databases and programming in tuple-aware languages.

A structure consisting of three components is written in the format (A2, S1.4, A3), where A2 and A3 represent objects defined in the program. This notation allows for clear identification of the structure elements and their relationships, which is important for further analysis and processing of the data. Correct understanding and use of this structure contributes to more efficient programming and simplifies working with objects within the development process.

The concept of an object was first introduced in the Plankalkül programming language. Objects could be either primitive or composite. Primitive objects were based on binary numbers of arbitrary length and were denoted by the symbol L. For example, the binary number 101101 was represented as L0LL0L. Compound objects included arrays, structures, and other complex data types. The introduction of these concepts was an important step in the development of programming and contributed to the creation of more complex and powerful languages.

There is no error in the above sentence — the language did provide the ability to work with arrays. An array of size [n] x [m] was denoted as n.m.S0, with indexing starting from zero. For example, the entry 4.5.0 denotes an array consisting of four elements, each of which is 5 bits in size. The entry 32.(0, 8.0, 16.0) indicates an array of 32 tuples, where each tuple contains three variables with sizes of 1, 8, and 16 bits, respectively.

Working with multidimensional arrays includes operations that allow for efficient data manipulation. For example, a three-dimensional array is denoted as V[i][j][k], where V[i] is represented as a matrix, and V[j][k] is represented as a vector. This approach simplifies data operations and helps optimize work with large amounts of information. Using multidimensional arrays is a key aspect in programming, allowing developers to create more complex and functional applications.

In Plankalkül, programs and subroutines are denoted as variables prefixed with P. For example, the notation P3.7 indicates a call to the seventh program in the third program group. This approach allows for the efficient organization and management of program structures, providing a clear and understandable notation.

The syntax, developed by Konrad Zuse, may seem unusual to modern developers. All notations in the language are multi-dimensional: the top line contains the expression itself, and the lower lines contain its arguments, such as subscripts and variable types. The Wikipedia article provides an example of an assignment in Plankalkül, which demonstrates this unique approach to writing program code. Although the language did not achieve widespread popularity, it laid the foundation for the subsequent development of programming languages ​​and introduced concepts that remain relevant today.

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The formula A = B + 1 is a simple mathematical equation, where A is the result and B is the input value. This formula can be applied in a variety of fields, including finance, physics, and programming. Understanding this basic mathematical concept allows you to effectively solve problems that involve incrementing values ​​by one. It is important to realize that equations like this serve as the foundation for more complex calculations and analytics. Use this formula to streamline calculations and improve accuracy in your projects.

When adding the number 1 to the variable A, the result is the value A. This simple mathematical expression illustrates how arithmetic operations affect variables. It is important to understand that in the context of programming and mathematics, similar operations can be used to change the values ​​of variables, which is a key aspect in algorithms and computing. Understanding basic arithmetic operations like addition helps developers create more efficient and optimized programs.

V | 4 5

Learning about V | 4 5 is of interest to many users. This concept covers various aspects that can be useful in a variety of fields. It is important to understand how V | 4 5 influences modern technology and its development.

Using V | 4 5 allows you to optimize processes and increase efficiency. This knowledge can be applied both in business and personal practice. Therefore, it is worth paying attention to the key points related to this topic.

To achieve the best results, it is important to follow the latest trends and changes in the field of V | 4 5. This will help you stay one step ahead and make informed decisions. Ultimately, a deep understanding of V | 4 5 can lead to significant advantages in your field of activity.

V in this context refers to the index string, and S is the string defining the data types. The value 1.n represents an integer of size n bits. It is believed that such architectural features arose due to the need to adapt information for storage on punched cards and punched tape, which were the primary data storage method for electronic computers at the time.

Plankalkül was originally developed for electromechanical devices, which eliminated the need for a compiler. In 2000, engineers at the Free University of Berlin addressed this shortcoming by creating the Plankalkül-2000 interpreter. This tool is a modern and somewhat simplified version of the original language, making it suitable for use on modern computing systems and making it more accessible to developers.

Anyone can immerse themselves in the atmosphere of that era by downloading the interpreter to their computer and practicing writing programs. This is an excellent opportunity not only to learn about the history of programming but also to develop their coding skills.

The link currently results in a 404 error, but some examples can still be found online. For example, a Wikipedia article offers code for a program to calculate the maximum value of three variables using the max3 function and the max subroutine. This can be a useful resource for developers and students learning algorithms and programming.

P1 max3 (V0[:8.0], V1[:8.0], V2[:8.0]) returns R0[:8.0]. This code is designed to find the maximum value among three variables. The function accepts three input parameters, each of which can contain up to eight values. The result that the function returns is also represented as an array containing up to eight elements. Optimization and use of this function can be useful in various applications where it is required to analyze and compare data sets to obtain the maximum value.

max(V0[:8.0], V1[:8.0]) returns the value Z1[:8.0], which is the maximum element between two arrays V0 and V1, limited by the first eight elements. This function allows you to compare elements and select the largest value, which can be useful in various data processing and analysis scenarios. Using this function optimizes the selection of maximum values ​​in an array, which can improve the performance of algorithms working with large amounts of data.

The max function allows you to determine the maximum value between the elements of two arrays Z1 and V2, limited to a range of up to 8.0. The result of the operation is written to the R0 array, also limited to values ​​up to 8.0. This allows you to efficiently find the largest values ​​in the specified ranges, which can be useful in various computational problems and data processing algorithms. Using this function increases performance and accuracy when comparing data.

Optimization of the P2 function, which takes two input arrays V0 and V1 with a maximum value of 8.0, returns the R0 array with the maximum values ​​​​from these two arrays, also limited to 8.0. This function allows you to efficiently compare values ​​​​and extract the maximum elements from two data sources, providing higher performance and accuracy when processing arrays. Using this feature in your projects will improve data processing and increase the quality of the results.

The comparison of the values ​​of the variables Z1 and V1 is performed as follows: if the value of Z1, limited by the first eight elements, is less than the value of V1, also limited by the first eight elements, then the result is a value of V1 equal to the values ​​of Z1 within the same limits. This process allows you to effectively analyze and compare data, ensuring the accuracy and relevance of conclusions.

Z1 with a range of 8.0 is converted to R0 with the same range of 8.0. This indicates that the values ​​of Z1 and R0 are within equal limits, which can be important for data analysis or process tuning. Similar transformations are often used in various fields, such as programming and data processing, to ensure compatibility and accuracy. Optimizing parameters in this context can lead to improved performance and efficiency of systems.

All programs and subroutines are identified using the P symbol, a unique number, and a calling name. The end of each program is recorded by the END command. It should be noted that this system emerged as a result of the further development of the Zuse language, which did not originally provide for such a notation. This demonstrates how modern technologies and programming languages ​​adapt and evolve, improving the convenience and functionality for developers.

Each subroutine represents input and result values. In this case, we have three input variables: V0, V1, and V2, each of which is 8 bits in size. The output value is the variable R0, also 8 bits in size.

The max subroutine is designed to determine the maximum value between the variables V0 and V1. First, the variable Z1 is assigned the value V0, which is considered the temporary maximum. Next, the value of Z1 is compared with V1. If V1 is greater than Z1, then Z1 is updated with the value of V1. As a result, the maximum value is stored in the resulting variable R0. Thus, the routine effectively finds the maximum between two given variables.

The max3 program finds the maximum value between the variables Z1 and V2 using the max routine. This procedure allows one to efficiently determine the largest value of two given variables, which can be useful in a variety of computing problems.

What happened next

Plankalkül could have been a significant breakthrough in programming in the 1940s and 1950s. At the time, there were no similar languages ​​that offered conditional constructs, two types of loops reminiscent of modern while and for loops, as well as arrays and tuples. Plankalkül also provided the ability to describe and call routines, although it should be noted that it lacked support for recursion. This programming language would have been a significant step in the development of computer technology if it had become more widespread.

In terms of power, this programming language is comparable to Algol 68, which was developed almost twenty-five years later. However, it was significantly superior to Algol 68 in terms of reliability.

The Z4 computer, despite its innovative technologies, did not achieve hit status. Its final readiness was achieved only in December 1944, when Allied forces were already actively fighting in Germany. Under war conditions, further development of this device lost all meaning for the Third Reich.

Adolf Hitler, initially skeptical of the rocket program, realized his mistakes too late. If the V-2 rockets had been introduced into Wehrmacht service, say, in 1942, it is difficult to say how long World War II might have lasted. This highlights the importance of missile development in the context of warfare and its potential impact on history.

Of course, I am willing to help with the revision of the text. Please provide the source text you wish to edit.

In my life, I have only apologized to two people. The first was Field Marshal von Brauchitsch, whom I did not listen to when he emphasized the importance of your research. The second was you. I never thought your work would be successful. These words highlight how often we underestimate the potential of others and how important it is to listen to those who truly understand the significance and value of work. Success can come unexpectedly, and it is important to be open to new ideas and recommendations.

On July 8, 1944, Adolf Hitler made a formal apology to Walter Dornberger. This event occurred in the context of a tense political situation and military defeats at the front. Hitler, as the leader of Nazi Germany, often accepted responsibility for mistakes and failures, which in this case affected his relationships with high-ranking military officials. Walter Dornberger, as a key figure in the development of the rocket program, played a vital role in Germany's military strategy. Hitler's apology underscores his efforts to maintain loyalty among the military command during a critical period of the war.

The Z4 was nearly destroyed during the bombing of Berlin. In March 1945, Konrad Zuse decided to dismantle it and transport it to a remote Alpine village, where he stored it for three years. This move preserved one of the first computers in history, which is of great importance for the development of computing. The preservation of the Z4 was an important contribution to the future of technology and information science.

After the war, the fates of his colleagues took different turns. Albert Speer was found guilty of war crimes and sentenced to 20 years in prison by the Nuremberg Tribunal. After his release, he earned a living by publishing memoirs.

Dornberger was arrested by American troops in May 1945 and received a two-year sentence for using He was subjected to slave labor in the production of V-2 rockets. After his release, he became an advisor to the US Secretary of Defense and played a key role in the creation of the American missile defense system and the space shuttle program. After retiring, Dornberger lived in Mexico and then returned to Germany, where he spent the rest of his life. Wernher von Braun, arrested at the same time as Dornberger, was soon transferred to the United States. He became one of the key architects of the American space program, playing a significant role in the development of rocket technology and space exploration. His contributions to the development of rocket systems and human spaceflight had a profound impact on the achievements of NASA and the global space community.

Gröttrup found himself in the Soviet occupation zone. From 1946, he led a group of German ballistic and guided missile specialists at a closed research facility on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger. Returning to the GDR in 1953, Gröttrup switched to computing and became one of the inventors of modern smart cards, significantly influencing the development of this field. Zuse was not prosecuted and remained in the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1950, he rebuilt his Z4 computer, which operated at 30 Hz and could process floating-point numbers. This electronic computer was capable of performing arithmetic operations, extracting square roots, and handling exceptions. However, overall, its capabilities were of interest primarily to the Germans. The Z4 was used for computing until 1960. This historically significant computer is currently housed in the Deutsches Museum in Munich, where it can be seen as part of an exhibition on the development of computing.

The Plankalkül programming language manual was not published until 1972, even though Fortran, Lisp, COBOL, and two versions of Algol (1960 and 1968) already existed. As a result, Plankalkül remained in the shadow of more popular languages, attracting only the limited attention of a small group of specialists. Developed by Konrad Zuse, this language represents an important stage in the history of programming, but its influence on the development of cybernetics and software was minimal.

Konrad Zuse had a successful and fruitful career. In 1946, he founded Zuse-Ingenieurbüro Hopferau, a company specializing in computer production. Three years later, in 1949, Zuse KG was founded. During the company's 17-year existence, 251 computers under the Z brand were produced, with a total value of approximately 100 million Deutschmarks. The last model was the Z31. In 1967, after selling his business to Siemens AG, Zuse continued to work as a consultant and was actively involved in scientific research. His contributions to the development of computing and computer technology remain significant.

He was an honorary doctor and professor at several European universities. In 1999, his name was added to the Book of Fame of the Computer History Museum in California, recognizing his significant contribution to the development of technology. In 2003, he was voted the greatest German of all time in a poll on the national television channel ZDF, testifying to his influence and recognition in society.

Zuse approached his work in the Third Reich with a philosophical outlook. He understood that his achievements in science and technology could be used for both good and evil purposes. This awareness did not preclude his pursuit of innovation and technological progress. Zuse focused on developing new technologies, recognizing their potential to impact society. His philosophical approach to work emphasized the ethical aspects of scientific research and its implications for humanity.

Inventors often fall victim to idealism, striving to change the world for the better, but they face harsh reality. To realize their ideas, they must interact with forces that have clear and categorical views. In modern society, such forces are primarily armies and government agencies.

Konrad Zuse was an outstanding German engineer and pioneer of computing. His memoirs provide a unique perspective on the development of early computers and the development of technology in the mid-20th century. Zuse is best known for creating the Z3, the world's first programmable computer, which laid the foundation for further research in the field of computing automation. In his memoirs, he shares his experiences working with early computers, discusses the difficulties and challenges he encountered during their creation, and shares his views on the future of computing. These memoirs not only document important historical events but also inspire new generations of engineers and scientists striving to advance technology and advance science. Konrad Zuse's contribution to the development of computing cannot be overstated, and his ideas continue to influence modern technology.

After retirement, Zuse devoted himself entirely to painting, which was his cherished hobby. He passed away at the age of 85. In honor of his contributions to art and public life, streets, buildings, and even a school in Hünfeld are named after him, underscoring his importance to the town and its residents.

Zuse remained a staunch socialist throughout his life and actively sought to use computers to implement the principles of universal equality, justice, and a planned economy. He devoted many years to developing a project for "computer socialism," which envisioned the creation of a unified network of powerful computers to manage global projects. This idea reflected his desire to create a system capable of effectively solving society's social and economic problems using technology.

Perhaps this idea will be successfully implemented in the future. Like many previous projects, it may take time to achieve success.

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