Multimedia Learning Essentials for Effective Digital Content

We have already discussed in detail how Richard Mayer, an American psychologist, professor, and researcher, based on a wide range of scientific hypotheses, studies, and practical observations, including his own, created a cognitive theory of multimedia learning. His work led to the formulation of specific principles that help in the development of educational content that combines various formats—text materials, images, sound, and animation. This type of content, designed for a variety of perception modes, such as reading, listening, and viewing, is called multimedia.

For example, a multimedia online course, where a student simultaneously listens to lectures from the instructor and watches a presentation containing text key points, as well as static and dynamic (animated) images.

Richard Mayer developed a number of principles aimed at helping students more easily perceive and remember new information. It is important to clarify that these principles do not concern the design of the curriculum itself, but are intended solely for "packaging" and presenting already created material in a multimedia content format.

In this article, we will consider the following aspects in detail:

Effective combination of visual materials, oral commentary, and text elements in an online course is a key aspect of successful learning. It is important that images serve not simply as illustrations, but complement and deepen the understanding of the material being studied. Oral explanations should be linked to visual and textual components, creating a holistic understanding of the information.
Text blocks should be formulated to support and reinforce the ideas presented in the audio and visualized through images. This creates a multi-layered approach to learning, with each element playing a unique role. For example, complex concepts can be simplified with visual diagrams or graphs, while oral explanations can help deepen the understanding of the context and meaning of the data presented.
Furthermore, remember that a variety of formats retains learners' attention and promotes better information retention. Alternating between different methods of presenting material helps create a dynamic atmosphere, which promotes greater engagement of course participants in the learning process.
The essence of all content organization principles can be summarized in several key points: a clear structure and logical sequence of information, content relevance to the target audience, ease of navigation and accessibility of materials, and an emphasis on the relevance and usefulness of the information provided.
The principles of knowledge transfer characterize the main approaches and methods that ensure effective learning and information exchange. These principles help organize the process of assimilation of material, promoting better understanding and memorization. They include aspects such as adapting content to the needs of the learner, using a variety of information presentation formats, creating an interactive environment for active participation, and encouraging critical thinking. It is also important to take into account the individual characteristics and preferences of each person in order to make the process of knowledge transfer more targeted and effective.
To what extent can we rely on these principles and what criticisms do they have?

The editors would like to thank Elena Tikhomirova, CEO of the eLearning Center and author of the Live Learning blog, for their support in preparing this article, as well as Mikhail Osipov, creator of the Online Learning Laboratory channel and the 3 Elements presentation course.

Fundamental Foundations of Multimedia Learning

Briefly, we remind you that the concept of multimedia learning is based on other theoretical approaches:

Cognitive load implies that it is necessary to avoid overloading the student's working, or RAM, with an excessive amount of information. Otherwise, the learned material will be poorly remembered.
Dual coding is based on the idea that visualization is helpful in enhancing comprehension and retention of verbal information. This means that two methods of conveying information—verbal and visual—should be used to better convey knowledge to learners.

Initially, there were twelve principles. However, after the publication of the first version of the book "Multimedia Learning," research in this area continued, and in subsequent editions, Richard Mayer and his co-authors introduced three additional principles, bringing the total number to fifteen.

As Mikhail Osipov explains, two main sets of principles can be roughly distinguished: principles related to content organization and principles related to knowledge transfer. We will examine these aspects in more detail below. This article illustrates some of these principles with examples created by Mikhail Osipov in collaboration with the eLearning Center under the supervision of Elena Tikhomirova.

Basic Principles of Content Structuring

This section presents nine key principles that help integrate various content formats and formulate basic design recommendations. Although these principles are now widely used, it should be remembered that Richard Meier originally created them for the design of multimedia presentation slides in asynchronous online courses intended for viewing on record.

The most convenient way to illustrate their use is with educational presentation slides. When applying these principles to other multimedia educational resources, however, it is important to carefully consider how well each one meets your objectives.

The basic idea is that learning is more effective when educational materials focus solely on the topic and do not contain elements that are irrelevant to learning, such as excessive text, unnecessary images, or sound effects.

The principle of coherence dictates that educational materials should include only the information that contributes to the achievement of educational objectives. All unnecessary details and distracting elements should be excluded, as they can lead to excessive cognitive load and distract the learner from completing the learning tasks.

Imagine that you are going to insert several images into your presentation. It is important to ask yourself several questions: “Do they really contribute to the assimilation of the information? Are they necessary or are they simply for visual presentation?” If you can't give a definitive answer or recognize that the image doesn't add educational value, it's likely unnecessary, and it's best to omit it.

The same approach applies to graphic elements, unnecessary design elements, and unnecessary sound effects. The same applies to text: analyze it for redundant details that don't contribute to the main message, or information added merely for its entertainment value but without practical value. It is advisable to exclude anything that is distracting and does not carry any semantic load.

An example of slide design with and without taking into account the principle of consistency. The left slide contains unnecessary elements: bulleted lists (with various marker icons) and illustrations, which can distract attention from the key information. The right slide shows only the key information on the topic: it is suitable for use provided the speaker or teacher explains each point or offers additional description. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media

The main idea is that learning is more successful when key points are highlighted and presented using cues that facilitate understanding of the structure of the information.

To focus students' attention on the most important points, it is necessary to use a screen or slide. For example, you can direct arrows to the main points or highlight the main idea with a different font, color, or other means. When explaining orally, significant points can be emphasized by pauses, changes in intonation, or directly mentioned, for example, by saying: “This fact is worth remembering, we will return to it!”

Example of slide design taking into account the signaling principle From the Skillbox course "Web Design from Scratch to Pro"Image: Skillbox

Research shows that information retention is significantly improved when it is presented simultaneously through two sensory channels—visual and auditory. Specifically, verbal information is remembered more effectively if it is accompanied by visual elements, such as images or animations.

Have you ever heard of dual coding theory? It states that presenting information simultaneously in visual and auditory forms reduces the strain on working memory and, in fact, promotes better retention. However, this approach is only effective for pictorial data, not textual data, as visual information is much easier to absorb than verbal information. The best way to convey educational material is to combine verbal explanation with visual elements such as illustrations, infographics, photographs, and animations.

It's important to note that illustrations don't just refer to any images, but specifically those that have educational value. The remaining images are irrelevant.

Research has shown that participants who studied with animated e-learning courses supplemented with sequential oral explanations demonstrated higher material retention than those who studied similar courses using animation but without oral commentary, relying on text-based reading materials.

According to research, people perceive information more effectively when it is presented in the form of a combination of visual elements and oral explanations than when text is added.

Simply put, it is inappropriate to present the same information simultaneously in text format, in the form of images, and with a voice-over. In this combination of media tools, text is redundant, since, according to the principle of modality, the most effective way to convey information is an oral explanation in combination with visual elements.

The bottom line is that the reading process is not in harmony with listening - this happens because many people mentally voice the text while reading. As a result, not only the eyes but also the ears are engaged. When an explanation is given orally, this places additional strain on the reader's hearing system (it's quite possible that the reading speed exceeds the narrator's speech rate, leading to a conflict between the inner voice and the speaker's voice).

Of course, this doesn't mean there should be no text on the screen at all. However, in cases where the main information is presented orally, it's best to limit the text to a minimum. For example, you can present the main ideas and list the sources in a relevant and concise manner.

An example of slide design without (left) and with (right) the principle of redundancy. The text on the slide on the left is redundant if the teacher comments on the map out loud. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media.

An example of slide design with and without the principle of redundancy. The text highlighted in red on the first slide is redundant. These are conclusions that follow from the diagram on the right, and it is better to speak them out loud so that the listener can simultaneously study the diagram. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

The basic idea is that people perceive information much better when it is presented in combination with words and images than in text format alone.

We have found that the best way to convey educational information is an oral explanation combined with visual materials. However, if we decide to use a text explanation, it is also desirable to supplement it with illustrations, rather than present it in its pure form. This is also supported by dual coding theory.

Again, it should be emphasized that images should not be used simply for visual appeal, but to effectively convey the essence of the information and clearly illustrate the content of the text. This approach facilitates the process of assimilation of new information by allowing the learner to form both verbal and visual mental models. This, in turn, contributes to better memorization of the material.

An example of slide design with and without taking into account the multimedia principle. The first version contains only text and a random image, while the second version includes an image that figuratively illustrates the content of the text. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

The basic idea is that students perceive information more effectively when images and their corresponding captions are located in close proximity to each other, rather than at a distance.

When an image and its caption are close to each other on a slide, viewers do not need to make extra effort to understand the relationship between them. Clear organization of information helps reduce mental strain.

This principle is relevant not only to images and their captions; any related elements should be in close proximity to each other. For example, this applies to tasks and instructions for their implementation, as well as questions and answers.

Examples of slides with incorrect and correct application of the principle of spatial relationship. On the first slide, the captions are located far from the elements they refer to, requiring additional effort for a person to associate them. The second slide has the correct placement, more convenient for readers or viewers. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media.

The basic idea is that students perceive information more effectively when visual material and verbal explanations are presented simultaneously, rather than one after the other.

When a teacher conducts an experiment in physics class, they typically comment on all the actions in real time, without waiting for the experiment to complete. A similar approach is also used in online courses. This is necessary to activate both visual and auditory perception, offering information in both verbal and visual forms. Otherwise, if verbal information is given first, followed by a demonstration (or vice versa), students may be less likely to retain new information effectively.

The basic idea is that information is retained more effectively if multimedia content is divided into distinct segments, each adapted to a specific perception rhythm, rather than presented as one large, continuous stream.

In other words, dividing the learning material into small, easily digestible parts is key. This will help reduce the load on cognitive processes and make it easier for participants to remember the information.

Students should also be given the opportunity to control the pace of learning (we are talking about an asynchronous format). This can be achieved by adding a speed regulator and a "next" button that will allow them to move on to the next slide or section. In his research, Richard Mayer found that students who have the ability to self-regulate their learning speed perform better on memory tests.

An example of slide design with and without segmentation. The first slide presents the content of the first section of the course without breaking it down into segments (subtopics). The second slide breaks it down into smaller subtopics. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

The basic idea is that information from multimedia materials is more effectively absorbed when the audience already has knowledge of the terms and concepts used in them.

The essence of pre-training is to provide students with the basics and a glossary of terms before delving into a topic, especially if they are unfamiliar with it and it is rich in specialized vocabulary. Here's what you can do:

Prepare a starter guide or conduct an introductory session covering the main concepts of the course;
An introduction to the text requires starting with defining key terms, which can be described as creating a glossary.

An example of the principle of preliminary preparation: a slide with a glossary from the Skillbox course "Web Design from Scratch to PRO" Illustration: Skillbox

Key Ideas Underlying Content Organization

Elena Tikhomirova emphasizes that the fundamental concept of design according to Mayer is the ability to skillfully combine various media formats. This includes the optimal combination of sound with text, visual elements with textual information, as well as the interaction of image, text, and sound.

It's important to note that it's not about the number of images, audio explanations, and text materials that may be present in a course. What matters more is how they interact with each other. That is, a synchronous combination, when text and images appear on the screen at the same time, when an image is accompanied by an audio explanation, or when all of these elements are combined in one moment.

There are three main methods for sharing information within an online course:

visual representations (illustrations, graphs, animations);
an audio file with a verbal explanation of the point being covered;
Please provide the text you want me to transcribe.

According to Mayer's research, a combination of two formats is preferable to relying on one or all three for the effective presentation of new information. It is important to combine verbal and visual presentation, as this facilitates easier perception and memorization of the material.

The optimal option is to combine visual content with audio recording, which involves the combined use of images and oral explanations provided in real time.
Combining text descriptions with graphic materials is also possible, but this approach demonstrates less effective results.
Combining text explanations with oral audio recordings is not recommended, as this is the least productive approach. In other words, you should not voice information that is already presented in written form on a slide.

The second important aspect of the principles is that all components of multimedia learning should be organized in such a way as not to overload the learner with unnecessary cognitive load. In other words, their arrangement should be logical, interconnected, concise (without redundant information) and comfortable for perception. In his explanations, Mayer detailed what is meant by the terms "logical," "convenient," and so on.

Key Factors for Effective Knowledge Transfer

This section includes six key principles. They highlight key aspects to consider when creating materials for both synchronous and asynchronous learning. This applies not only to presentation slides, but also to more modern technologies. However, it should be noted that technological advances occur much faster than the experimental base for their evaluation can be formed.

The main idea is that information is absorbed more effectively when it is presented in the form of a casual conversation.

First of all, the use of official expressions and specialized terminology hinders the perception of information, as it creates additional cognitive load. People first have to "translate" the information they hear or read into more accessible, everyday language. Therefore, it's important to discuss topics in a simple, understandable, conversational style.

Secondly, a relaxed atmosphere gives each student the impression that the teacher is speaking specifically to them. This, in turn, promotes more attentive perception of the information.

Mikhail Osipov, explaining this principle for Skillbox Media, notes that it applies to all forms of interaction with students. This means it applies not only to teachers but also to mentors, curators, and anyone else who communicates with students.

The basic idea is that information is easier to perceive when it is presented in a human voice rather than a machine voice.

A real human voice can convey emotions and content more fully than a computer imitation. In this context, the artificial voice often used by bloggers on the TikTok platform immediately comes to mind. Mikhail Osipov, discussing this aspect for Skillbox Media, cites research by Richard Meyer, who argues that even a voice generated by artificial intelligence and as close to a human voice as possible is perceived less effectively than a real human voice.

The main idea is that the presence of an on-screen teacher image is not a prerequisite for successful information comprehension.

Richard Meyer advises avoiding the use of "talking heads" in asynchronous courses. Instead, he believes that presentations that use visuals and text fully satisfy learning needs.

The speaker's image is necessary to:

show the teacher's active involvement in course development;
express the teacher's individual opinion on the issue being discussed in the lesson;
retell the material in their own words, as the teacher would.
create a vivid emotional emphasis.

How valid are Richard Meier's ideas?

At first glance, some principles may seem overly simple and obvious. However, when Italian experts conducted research on the role of illustrations in the learning process and organized a series of experiments, it turned out that participants unfamiliar with Meier's theory intuitively came to similar conclusions. This is the secret of the popularity of his theory and principles: they are not based on empty guesses, but have a scientific basis.

Unlike a number of well-known, but less effective in practice, educational models, multimedia learning theory is based on solid scientific hypotheses and research. Richard Mayer and his colleagues conducted over 200 experiments to test each of the principles, repeating them multiple times to increase the reliability of the results.

Of course, this theory has been studied not only by Mayer himself, but also by a number of other scientists, including researchers from Russia, over many years. Let's consider one of the most relevant and extensive examples: a team of specialists from Australia conducted a meta-meta-analysis. In the course of their work, they analyzed 29 systematic reviews that summarized data from various scientific studies. As a result, the final articles covered 1,189 experiments in which more than 79,000 people participated.

"Most of the design principles derived from multimedia learning theory have significant support, confirmed by systematic reviews and meta-analyses. "Furthermore, we also found support for the core assumptions underlying cognitive theory of multimedia learning: learners are able to integrate information more effectively when it is presented as both visual and auditory elements, provided that steps are taken to minimize the risk of cognitive overload," they noted.

Multimedia learning theory, based on a rigorous analysis of evidence, has earned a prominent place in contemporary instructional design. Mayer's principles are used not only in the development of slide-based courses and learning materials, but also in a wide variety of fields. For example, they are used to assess the quality of visual elements in textbooks and to create digital library resources.

Reasons for the Negative Reception of Mayer's Principles

Despite the extensive evidence, researchers point out certain shortcomings. In particular, Australian educational psychologist and developer of cognitive load theory, John Sweller, has criticized this theory. He questioned the underlying assumption of Richard Mayer's work regarding the effectiveness of simultaneously engaging visual and auditory perception. Sweller and his team believed that this approach, on the contrary, diminishes a person's cognitive resources. Among other shortcomings of the theory, the researchers note that it fails to take into account either students' motivation or their individual information-processing abilities. A lack of motivation or even simple stress can significantly reduce working memory resources. At the same time, many components of educational courses that may seem redundant and distracting from a coherence perspective actually play an important role in engaging students and maintaining their attention. Regarding personal characteristics, some students easily comprehend long lectures, while others' attention span weakens after just a few minutes. Educational experts believe that it is important to consider other key principles when implementing multimedia learning methods: As participants gain more experience and knowledge, the effectiveness of these principles decreases. Mikhail Osipov emphasizes that the principles proposed by Mayer are primarily intended for students with limited educational experience. If you try to adapt these principles to teaching more experienced listeners, the result may be significantly less effective. In other words, people with significant learning experience have well-developed skills for extracting the necessary information. They are able to cope with voluminous and complex texts, as well as with materials presented in an inconvenient format. Most likely, reducing cognitive load will not lead to a significant increase in the effectiveness of their learning, since it is already at a high level.

The methods proposed by Mayer are not universal and may not be suitable for everyone.

Elena Tikhomirova emphasizes that, despite the empirically confirmed principles, their use is impossible without taking into account the educational context. For example, the effect of segmentation will be less noticeable if the material is initially simple and presented slowly. As for the principle of redundancy, it will be ineffective for visually impaired students. In other words, when implementing the principles of multimedia learning, it is imperative to take into account the individual characteristics of both students and the educational materials themselves.

In order to achieve a high level of design, Mayer's principles alone are not enough.

Although the outlined principles are quite clear and detailed, they cannot be considered exhaustive. "For example, Richard Meier doesn't pay enough attention to the role of color, despite its critical role in the design of e-learning materials. No principles can save the situation if the text is written in lime green on a bright yellow background. Learning from such material is impossible. The same applies to low-quality images or videos. Therefore, it's important to pay attention to overall visual neatness and cleanliness," emphasizes Elena Tikhomirova.

The main thing experts point out is that the principles proposed by Richard Meier, while valuable, are guidelines, not strict standards. While they can be useful as guidelines, the target audience, expected learning outcomes, and available technical resources should be considered first when creating any educational course or material.