An excerpt from the book "Everything, Always, Everywhere: How We Became Postmodernists"

Contents:

Ad Marginem has published Stuart Jeffreys's book "Everything, Always, Everywhere: How We Became Postmodern." In this work, the author examines key moments in cultural development, including the opening of the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. In this excerpt, we delve into the criticism the museum faced and explore the reasons why this iconic institution was unpopular with many art critics.

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In 1986, the year Jeff Koons's Rabbit became a symbol of modern art and Quentin Tarantino achieved success in Hollywood, the Musée d'Orsay opened in Paris. The transformation of a former train station on the banks of the Seine into one of the world's leading art galleries was a significant event in the world of postmodernism. This project became a shining example of appropriation art, similar to how Jeff Koons used classic works to create unique objects like Louis Vuitton bags, or how hip-hop artists sampled other people's tracks to create new compositions. The Musée d'Orsay not only became a repository of masterpieces but also a symbol of the intersection of tradition and modernity, making it an important part of cultural heritage.

The Musée d'Orsay was one of eight significant buildings that transformed Paris after 1982. These projects, conceived under President Pompidou and completed under François Mitterrand, included such remarkable structures as the Louvre Pyramid, the Institute of the Arab World, Parc de la Villette, the Opéra Bastille, the Grande Arche de la Defense, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Library of France. These ambitious architectural projects symbolize the culmination of the period known as the "Trentes Glorieuses," when France, like many Western countries, experienced an economic boom thanks to the interventionist policies known in France as "dirigisme." The Musée d'Orsay, converted from a former railway station, became not only a cultural center but also an important element of the Parisian architectural landscape, attracting thousands of tourists and art lovers. These projects became a striking example of state-led urban planning. Although not as radical as Haussmann's 19th-century transformation of Paris, their impact on the city's appearance and atmosphere was significant. They symbolized postmodern changes: France was transitioning to a post-industrial society, and Paris was becoming a center of art and culture. The city's transformation under President Mitterrand illustrated the concept of post-industrial society proposed by sociologist Daniel Bell. This term encompasses concepts of consumer society, media, information, digital, and high technology. The impact of these projects on the image of Paris was revolutionary, comparable to the events of 1789, 1848, 1871, and 1968. Paris had never been culturally stagnant, but Mitterrand's grandiose initiatives emphasized its status as a world capital of culture and sought to breathe new life into this image, strengthening its position as the world's leading cultural center.

Paris has strived to become part of the postmodern carnival since the opening of the Pompidou Center in 1979. This exhibition complex became a symbol of postmodernism thanks to its unique architecture and the concept of a space created for the endless entertainment of visitors. One of the Center's architects, Renzo Piano, noted that this place should be perceived not as a simple building, but as an entire city where one can enjoy a variety of pleasures: from lunch and magnificent art to books in the library and high-quality music. The Pompidou Centre has become not only a cultural hub but also an important part of Parisian urban life, attracting tourists and locals alike with its diversity and innovative approach to art and culture.

The Pompidou Centre is located in the 4th arrondissement of Paris and has become a kind of city's answer to the Loch Ness Monster, as Le Figaro aptly noted. Despite the absence of an actual monster in Loch Ness, this comparison underscores the significance of the Pompidou Centre for the French capital. Its architecture and concept reflect audacity, noisiness, and irony, bringing a playful and infantile touch to the urban landscape. This institution has become a symbol of postmodern art, attracting the attention of both locals and tourists and exerting a noticeable influence on the cultural life of Paris.

The Beaubourg building, also known as the Georges Pompidou Centre, is a striking example of an architectural experiment that challenges traditional Parisian architecture. Like Le Corbusier's Unité d'Habitation and Portman's Westin Bonaventure Hotel, the Beaubourg does not strive for harmony with the surrounding city. Architects Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano, and Gianfranco Francini developed a concept in which the load-bearing frame and all utility systems are located on the exterior of the building. This solution not only highlights the innovative approach but also allows the interior to remain free and adaptable to a variety of needs.

The building's architectural elements are clearly visible: water pipes are painted green, ventilation and air conditioning are blue, electrical lines are yellow, and the fire alarm system is red. This vibrant color scheme is not only functional but also creates a unique visual effect. The interiors of the Beaubourg can be easily transformed and rearranged, making it an ideal space for a variety of cultural events and exhibitions.

The building's façade actively interacts with the public: large electronic screens attract the attention of passersby, and glass escalators provide access to the various levels. The Centre Georges Pompidou has become not only a cultural but also an architectural icon, emphasizing the boldness and innovation of modern design.

Thirty years after its opening, the Beaubourg received the prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize. The jury noted that the art complex designed by Piano and Rogers revolutionized museums. It transformed once-elite monuments into accessible and attractive spaces for social and cultural interaction, embedded in the very fabric of cities.

Richard Rogers once noted that "culture should entertain." At the time, this idea seemed revolutionary. Intellectuals traditionally disdained anything that could bring pleasure to the public, and architecture did not aim to facilitate access to entertainment. In their book, Dialectic of Enlightenment, Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno lamented the decline of modern society, including Hollywood, declaring, "Fun is the iron bath prescribed for us by the pleasure industry." They argued that laughter was becoming a weapon of deception, and moments of happiness were disappearing, remaining only in operettas and films where images of sex were accompanied by loud laughter. In their perception, laughter in a false society was like a disease that threatened true happiness, plunging it into a vile totality of mirth. This is likely how Horkheimer and Adorno viewed the cultural institutions and entertainment spaces created by Piano and Rogers. These two Frankfurt thinkers, observing from their Californian retreat, identified a "culture industry" that used entertainment as a tool for manipulating the masses.

The Musée d'Orsay opened its doors in 1986 with the aim of serving as a cultural bridge between the classical art presented at the Louvre and the contemporary trends found at the Centre Pompidou. Italian designer and architect Gae Aulenti, who oversaw the transformation of the former train station into a museum, noted: "We perceived the old station as a modern object, devoid of history. We considered the architect Victor Laloux, who designed the Gare d'Orsay, our ally in transforming the building into a museum." However, this approach raises questions, as Laloux's design is a striking example of architectural history. He created a railway station that, in fact, did not look like one, concealing its true function beneath a Beaux-Arts façade that had already become anachronistic by the time it opened in 1900. According to Robert Venturi's classification, the building could be called a "decorated barn" rather than a "duck." From the very beginning, it looked less like a place for train departures and arrivals and more like an art gallery. Artist Edouard Detaille once remarked: "The station is magnificent and imbued with the spirit of a palace of art." The Musée d'Orsay continues to attract the attention of art lovers, becoming an important part of the cultural landscape of Paris.

Eighty-six years after the transformation of the station With the transformation of the Musée d'Orsay into a palace of arts, the cultural landscape of museums has undergone significant changes. Museums are no longer the places that once attracted visitors with their uniqueness. French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu noted in his book "Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste" that for most people, visiting museums has become a mundane and sometimes boring activity. To make the museum-going experience more engaging and attract new demographics, innovations were needed. As Barbara Rose, a Vogue journalist covering the opening of the Musée d'Orsay, put it, "visiting museums was supposed to be an alternative to outings, a way to relax and recharge." Also important was the creation of high-quality gift shops, which we will discuss later. Museums must adapt to modern demands to become attractive not only to traditional audiences, but also to young people and tourists.

In the essay "A History of Postmodernism" At the Musée d'Orsay, art historian Patricia Mainardi argues that Gae Aulenti successfully addressed the conflicting demands of postmodernism by replacing traditional understandings of history with spectacle. As Mainardi notes, the key stylistic characteristics of postmodernism were the "appropriation of historical architectural language" and the "combination of contradictory styles." These elements are combined to create a spectacle imbued with historical references, while concealing any historical meanings that might be associated with these references. In this way, Aulenti masterfully transforms architectural space, offering the viewer not simply a visual experience but also a multi-layered perception of history.

Aulenti transformed the museum into a theatrical space, applying her skills acquired designing the interiors of car dealerships and stores. She created a striking series of vistas and galleries that captivate with their aesthetics, relegating the art on display to a secondary role. One distinctive feature was the gallery of nineteenth-century Barbizon artists, where delicate and realistic landscapes in gilded frames were ingeniously displayed on black walls. The juxtaposition of Baroque and Art Nouveau, as well as opulence and functionality, became a striking example of the postmodern approach, which emphasizes the creation of unexpected contrasts and the disruption of familiar harmonies in interior design.

Visitors were provided with a unidirectional flow through a series of galleries, allowing them to experience the exhibition precisely as Aulenti and her French curators had intended. Several passages were left open, allowing for shortcuts and reducing the length of the visit. This routing scheme, later successfully adapted by IKEA stores, contributed to a more organized and convenient perception of space.

In Paris, a city of free thinkers and modernists who believed in the idea of ​​aimless strolling, this was perceived as heresy. Art, which was subordinated to the cold and pretentious spectacle of Aulenti, found itself in the center of attention of passers-by, forcing their gaze to focus on something divorced from traditional roots.

Two sculptures serve as a striking example of art presented in a unique museum exhibition. On high pedestals located opposite each other are the bronze statues "Finding in Pompeii" (1863) by Hippolyte Moulin and "The Cockfighter Victor" (1864) by Alexandre Falguière. Both sculptures are noteworthy for their artistic value, particularly Moulin's work, which depicts a naked boy with a shovel, joyfully dancing as he discovers a Roman statuette. His pose seems to reflect his imagination, echoing the gesture of the original. However, the significance of these works of art extends beyond their aesthetic value and is subordinated to the overall concept of the museum exhibition. The sculptures are positioned so that, when viewed along the gallery, they appear on either side of the giant station clock, which still dominates the space, covered by the transparent vaulted dome of the station. This creation of a striking visual series attracts the attention of thousands of visitors, turning the museum into a photogenic place. This creates a postmodern phenomenon, where visitors photograph art rather than truly perceive it. At the recently opened Musée d'Orsay, the most popular exhibition was Richard Peduzzi's multimedia installation dedicated to the history of the Paris Opera. Designed by architect Charles Garnier for Emperor Napoleon III between 1861 and 1875, the building has become a true architectural and cultural icon. The installation includes a detailed cross-sectional model of the opera house, as well as illuminated display cases displaying posters for its major productions. At the center of the exhibition is a 1:100 scale model of the Opera district, covered with a glass floor, across which visitors can stroll and admire the view from above. This installation has been described by Mainardi as a high-cultural Disneyland that sidesteps the thorny issues surrounding the Haussmannization of Paris.

The political context that underpinned Napoleon III's decision to build an opera house at the intersection of the new Parisian boulevards has been erased. The emperor sought to eliminate the dangerous old quarters of the city in order to make Paris less conducive to the construction of barricades and reduce its revolutionary potential. The Opéra Garnier played a key role in this process, contributing to the strengthening of state control and the gentrification of the French capital. However, this part of history was ignored in Peduzzi's installations, which instead focused on a mesmerizing postmodern spectacle. In this respect, the artist's work reflects the characteristic features of the Musée d'Orsay exhibitions.

The problem Mainardi mentioned is the "deliberately inert" nature of nineteenth-century impressionist, realist, and post-impressionist art, which was intended to be the museum's central theme. This inertia, however, opened new horizons for postmodernist revisionism. Modernism divided art into the "blessed" and the "damned," excluding the latter from museum collections. Postmodernism, in turn, brought the "damned" back into museums, an important step in rethinking artistic heritage. One of the main beneficiaries of this revisionism was a genre that French critics ironically called l'art pompier, which translates as "fire art." These are academic paintings with historical or allegorical scenes that appeal to bourgeois values. The term itself derives from the copper helmets of French firefighters, reminiscent of ancient Greek Attic helmets, and is also a play on words linking it with pompéien (Pompeian) and pompeux (pompous). Thus, a postmodern approach to art allows for the rethinking and cultural return of works previously considered "damned".

The discovery of Moulins in Pompeii is a striking example of art pompier in one of its meanings. However, more characteristic examples of this movement are the works of artists such as William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Alfred Agache, and Thomas Couture, whose large-scale canvases often depict historical events. Couture's 1847 painting "Romans of the Age of Decay" occupies a place of honor in the museum, displayed on a separate partition, ensuring its good visibility from various points. This placement emphasizes, as Mainardi notes, that it should be perceived not only as a work of art, but also as an element of architectural decoration. The political allegory inherent in Couture's work becomes less obvious: by depicting dissolute Romans, the artist, a Jacobin, anticlerical, and republican, makes an accusation of the moral decline of the July Monarchy of Louis-Philippe. However, this accusation loses its force, subordinated to the artificial spectacle organized by Aulenti.

L'art pompier experienced a significant revival with the opening of the Musée d'Orsay, as it was presented there as no less aesthetically significant than the famous realist and impressionist works of the time. As Mainardi noted, the museum's overall structure resembles a well-known caricature depicting a cross-section of a typical Parisian apartment building: on the ground floor, the bourgeoisie lives in luxury, then the ceilings become lower, and the residents become increasingly poor, until bohemian artists inhabit the attic. This creates the impression that the revolutionary art of the nineteenth century—masters such as Monet, Cézanne, and Van Gogh—is overshadowed by reactionary art. This is because the pompous style of l'art pompier fits perfectly with the style and architectural design of the Musée d'Orsay, allowing it to avoid oblivion and maintain its significance in art history.

A culture critic for The New York Times advises against wasting time in the grand main hall of the Musée d'Orsay. He emphasizes that the museum's true value lies in its Impressionist collection, including works by Monet, Van Gogh, Renoir, Pissarro, and others, which is concentrated in the top four rooms on the top floor. Sculptor Paul Berry also shares his opinion of the museum in his article entitled "Cannibal Architects," while renowned anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss notes that visiting the Orsay gives him a migraine. In conclusion, Mainardi compares the Orsay to a "camel museum," arguing that if a camel represents a horse created by a committee, then the Musée d'Orsay reflects a similar approach in its architecture and exhibitions.

Aulenti felt no need to justify herself. "After the museum's opening, press reviews were extremely negative," she noted, "but every day, twenty thousand people line up in long queues to visit the museum."

The postmodernist work on the transformation of the interiors of the former train station demonstrated how museums can be made attractive in the face of intense competition for the attention of consumers seeking experiences. Fredric Jameson characterized postmodernism as "the consumption of pure commodification as a process." The Musée d'Orsay, through its historical presentation of works of art, facilitated this type of consumption by presenting artifacts from its vast collection as variations on artistic styles and ignoring the history of the struggle behind their creation. The culture industry, studied by Adorno and Horkheimer in the example of Hollywood, penetrated the art world, which, according to their ideas and those of Marcuse, was supposed to serve as the last bastion of resistance to the existing order. Thus, postmodernism became a term of abuse for many left-wing critics, which underscores its contradictory nature.

Let's not leave the Musée d'Orsay in a depressed mood. Let's go to the museum's gift shop. Art in the postmodern era is unimaginable without shopping. In the gift shop, you can buy reproductions of works by great masters, such as those Jeff Koons applied to Louis Vuitton bags, but at significantly more affordable prices. For example, a scarf with an image of "Water Lilies" A Monet costs 39.90 euros, a fan with Van Gogh's "Starry Night" will cost only 6 euros, and a large canvas bag with Degas's "Dancers" is only 11.95 euros. Moreover, you don't have to go to Paris or stand in line at the Musée d'Orsay to make a purchase. All of these items can be easily ordered online. This way, you don't have to expend the energy to understand art through a museum visit, but you can still connect with culture and express yourself through purchase. This will be a true manifestation of postmodernism.

In his book "The Coming Post-Industrial Society: An Experience of Social Forecasting", Bell D. examines the changes in social structure and economy that accompany the transition to the post-industrial stage of development. He emphasizes the importance of information technology and its impact on social relations, work, and education. This book is a significant contribution to sociology and economic theory, offering an insightful analysis of future trends and their potential societal implications. Published in Moscow in 2004 by Academia Publishing House, it is a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in the social sciences who wish to understand the dynamics of contemporary change and prepare for future challenges. Built in the 1970s, the Pompidou Centre is an iconic example of French radicalism in architecture. This unique postmodern structure remains relevant and sought-after, attracting the attention of both local residents and tourists from around the world. The Centre's architectural design, with its distinctive exhibition space and exposed pipes, disrupts traditional norms, thereby creating a new perception of public space. The appeal of the Pompidou Centre lies not only in its appearance but also in the diversity of its cultural events, exhibitions, and educational programs, making it an important center for contemporary art. Despite the passage of decades, it has not lost its significance and continues to inspire new generations of architects and artists.

According to an article by N. Urow in The Guardian, published on July 11, 2013, Richard Rogers emphasizes that the street is a space where society reveals its essence. He focuses on the importance of public spaces in shaping social structure and interaction. Streets serve not only as transport arteries but also as places for communication and exchange of opinions, which plays a key role in the development of urban community.

The Pompidou Centre, designed by the architectural duo Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers, is an outstanding example of modern art and architecture. Completed in 1977, this cultural complex is located in the heart of Paris and has become a symbol of the city. The center includes a library, a modern art museum, a cinema, and exhibition spaces, making it an important hub of cultural life. The building's architecture, with its distinctive exterior chimneys and vibrant colors, attracts attention and sparks interest among tourists and locals alike. The Centre Pompidou not only houses collections of contemporary art but also actively participates in cultural events, exhibitions, and educational programs. This makes it one of the most visited attractions in Paris and an essential place for exploring contemporary art.

Horkheimer and Adorno, in their work "Dialectic of Enlightenment," analyze the philosophical and social aspects of the Enlightenment, revealing its contradictions. In particular, they emphasize that the pursuit of rationality and progress that characterizes the Enlightenment also led to the emergence of new forms of oppression and inequality. The authors explore how the ideals of freedom and reason can be used to justify totalitarian regimes. Their work remains relevant and important for understanding contemporary social and cultural processes. Studying "Dialectic of Enlightenment" helps us understand the complex relationships between knowledge, power, and society, making it a key work in the field of philosophy and critical theory.

Gè Aulenti, an outstanding architect and designer, has left a significant mark on the world of architecture. Her works are distinguished by a unique style and a commitment to innovative solutions. She was known for her ability to combine modernity with historical elements, creating harmonious spaces. Aulenti made an important contribution to the design of public and cultural spaces that continue to inspire a new generation of architects. Her legacy lives on in each project, reflecting a deep understanding of space and its interaction with users.

A quote from S. Meisler's article "All Aboard for the Opening of the Paris Art Museum", published in the Los Angeles Times on December 2, 1986, emphasizes the importance of cultural events. The opening of the new Paris art museum was a significant event in the world of culture and art, attracting the attention of both local residents and an international audience. This event embodies the development of the city's cultural infrastructure and its commitment to contemporary trends in art.

Pierre Bourdieu in his work "Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste" (1984) raises important questions about the relationship between taste and social stratification. He analyzes how preferences in art, food, and other cultural phenomena serve as indicators of social status. Bourdieu argues that taste is not innate, but is shaped by social conditions and educational level. His research shows how cultural preferences can reinforce class differences and create hierarchies in society. This work remains relevant for understanding cultural dynamics and social structure, as well as for analyzing contemporary trends in art and consumption.

P. Mainardia's major work, presented in the article "Postmodernist History at the Musée d'Orsay", published in October, issue 41, summer 1987, explores the influence of postmodernism on the interpretation of historical events in the context of art. The article analyzes exhibition practices and approaches of museums that seek to rethink and present history through the prism of contemporary concepts. Mainardia highlights how postmodern ideas have changed the perception of art and its role in shaping historical memory. This work remains relevant for researchers interested in the interaction of art and history, as well as how cultural institutions adapt their approaches in response to changes in society.

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In the article "What's Happening in Paris" Author R. Lewis, in The New York Times publication of April 19, 1987, examines current events and cultural trends in the French capital. Paris, a center of art and fashion, continues to attract the attention of tourists and locals with its unique atmosphere and variety of events. Exhibitions, gastronomic events, and urban initiatives that shape the city's cultural landscape are discussed. Understanding these aspects is key for anyone interested in Paris and its influence on world culture.

Postmodern history is an analysis of historical events and processes taking into account modern concepts and approaches. This approach emphasizes the diversity of interpretations, contextuality, and relativity of historical facts. Postmodern history rejects ideas about a single, linear, and objective truth, emphasizing that any historical narrative is shaped by cultural and social factors.

The study of postmodern history requires us to rethink traditional methods of analysis and take into account diverse points of view. This allows for a deeper understanding of complex historical processes and the identification of hidden narratives that may be missed within the framework of classical historical scholarship. Postmodern approaches open new horizons for research, allowing us to analyze how different cultural contexts influence the perception and interpretation of historical events.

Thus, postmodern history not only enriches our knowledge of the past but also offers new tools for analyzing and critically understanding historical narratives. This approach helps us better understand how history is shaped and perceived in contemporary society, which is essential for further research in the field of historical scholarship.

Gaea Aulenti, a renowned Italian architect and designer, has left a distinctive mark on the world of architecture and art. Born in 1927, she designed numerous significant projects throughout her career, including museums, exhibition spaces, and public buildings. Aulenti was recognized for her ability to combine modern style with traditional elements to create unique spaces. Her works were distinguished by their attention to detail and the harmony of form and function. Aulenti was also active in interior design, creating elegant and functional spaces. She has received numerous awards for her achievements and left a legacy that inspires new generations of architects and designers.

In her work "Postmodernism," F. Jamison examines the key aspects of postmodern culture and its influence on contemporary society. The author analyzes how postmodernism has changed the perception of art, literature, and philosophy, as well as how new technologies and globalization have influenced cultural processes. In his work, Jamison emphasizes that postmodernism not only reflects changes in society but also forms new approaches to understanding reality. He emphasizes the importance of critically analyzing postmodern phenomena, which allows for a deeper understanding of their influence on contemporary thinking.

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