Design History: 1910s–1920s

Contents:

• Daria Sorokina
• Germany. "Werkbund"
• Austria. "Vienna Workshops"
• Switzerland. Division of the "Werkbund"
• Netherlands. "Amsterdam School" and "De Stijl"
• France. The Birth of Art Deco

Daria Sorokina

Art historian and researcher of avant-garde art 1920s–1930s in Russia and Germany. Currently, I am a Master's student in the Design Studies program at the Bauhaus Dessau. I work at the Bauhaus Dessau Foundation, where I study and promote the legacy of the avant-garde and its influence on contemporary art and design.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, as well as at the beginning of the 20th century, Art Nouveau occupied a leading position in art and design. In the 1910s, the situation changed, and a clear picture was no longer evident. Nevertheless, significant phenomena can still be identified in this decade that embodied the spirit of the times and influenced the further development of artistic movements.

During this period, the first professional design association, the Werkbund, was formed in Germany. Expressionism was actively developing in painting and architecture, and the Russian avant-garde in painting also began to emerge. In the Netherlands, the De Stijl movement emerged, and the Amsterdam School of Architecture was founded. Functionalism was also emerging at this time, and Art Deco was making its first steps in France. These movements had a significant impact on the development of design and architecture, forming new approaches and concepts that continue to inspire contemporary art.

The main characteristic of the decade was the emergence of trends that would later define 20th-century design. Key aspects included conciseness, minimalism, utility, and functionality. At the same time, there was also a growing interest in decoration and expressiveness, creating a contrast between strict forms and bright, expressive elements. These trends form the foundations of modern design, reflecting the needs and tastes of society.

• Germany. Werkbund;
• Austria. Wiener Werkstätte;
• Switzerland. A division of the Werkbund;
• Netherlands. "Amsterdam School" and "De Stijl";
• France. The birth of Art Deco;
• Russia. Russian pictorial avant-garde.

Germany. "Werkbund"

In 1906, an exhibition was held in Dresden that showcased examples of modern design and architecture created in collaboration between architects and master artisans. This exhibition became a key moment in determining the direction of design development, emphasizing functionality and conciseness. As a result of this approach, design began to rapidly evolve, reflecting the needs of the time and the changing aesthetic preferences of society. This era ushered in new trends in architecture and design, where form served function and simplicity became the key to style.

In 1907, in Munich, inspired by the Dresden exhibition, twelve representatives of various design-related professions united to create a community. This association included artists, architects, craftsmen, entrepreneurs, industrialists, and experts. They called their community the "Deutsche Werkbund." This organization played a significant role in the development of design and artistic production in Germany, facilitating the exchange of ideas and the introduction of new approaches in various fields of art and craft.

The goal of the association was to support and develop artistic crafts, as well as new industrial art aimed at improving the quality of mass production. The members of the "Deutsche Werkbund" sought not only to raise the aesthetic standards of consumers, but also to form a unique style of German design capable of successfully competing in the international arena.

The British experience had a significant influence on the formation and development of the "Deutsche Werkbund", especially the "Arts and Crafts" movement of William Morris. Hermann Muthesius, one of the founders of the "Werkbund", spent much time in Britain, where he carefully studied the architecture and design of the English house. As a result of his observations, he published the book "The English House" in Germany in 1908. Interestingly, Muthesius's goal was to identify German design similar to English design, which indicates a desire to integrate the best traditions into the German cultural environment.

Members of the "Deutsche Werkbund" were outstanding multidisciplinary artists, craftsmen capable of creating a variety of objects - from door handles to entire buildings. One of these talented designers was Peter Behrens, who is rightfully considered one of the first industrial designers in the world. For the German Electric Company (AEG), he designed not only light bulbs, kettles, and fans, but also turbine halls and entire architectural complexes. Behrens also worked in graphic design, highlighting his versatility and contribution to the development of design and architecture.

One of the key areas of the Werkbund's work was educational activities. Members of the association not only limited themselves to public lectures and regular exhibitions, but also actively created educational institutions of a new type. Particularly noteworthy are the "experimental art and industrial workshops" at the Grand Ducal Saxon Art School in Weimar, where the architect Henri van de Velde, one of the founders of the "Werkbund," served as artistic consultant. The training emphasized a deep understanding of the natural properties of materials and their rational use, which contributed to the development of innovative approaches in art and design. This educational model became the foundation for the formation of new standards in the teaching of artistic and applied disciplines.

In the main building of the workshops, completed by Van de Velde in 1911, Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus, the first and leading modernist school of the 20th century. This school had a significant influence on the development of architecture and design, introducing new ideas and approaches that changed understandings of art education and practice. The Bauhaus became a center for innovative teaching methods that combined art and industrial design, making it a milestone in the history of modern art and architecture.

A unique educational project of the "Deutsche Werkbund" was the utopian settlement of Hellerau, founded in 1909 by Karl Schmidt, a carpenter who turned his business into a successful factory. Situated on the outskirts of Dresden, this settlement became home to artists and workers, whose cozy homes were surrounded by greenery in keeping with the concept of a "garden city." Here, life combined work, culture, and education, creating a harmonious space for personal development. Since 1911, Hellerau housed a cultural center with an experimental school where rhythmic gymnastics, gymnastics, singing, and various theater practices were practiced. This place became an important example of the integration of art and education, drawing attention to innovative teaching methods and cultural exchange.

During the first seven years of its existence, the "Werkbund" successfully combined creative ambitions with the demands of mass industrial production. The organization held international exhibitions, which helped popularize its products, and also published catalogs that informed about new developments and achievements. This approach allowed the Werkbund to establish a strong market position and strengthen its ties with partners.

The pre-war exhibition in Cologne in 1914 marked the culmination of the industrial association's development. This event showcased mass-produced furniture, mass-produced household items, including furniture for train sleeping cars, and architectural designs that became the dominant media of their time. It was at this exhibition that two key trends that would soon become dominant were showcased: expressionism and functionalism. These styles had a significant influence on the further development of design and architecture, defining the aesthetic and functional standards of their time.

Austria. Wiener Werkstätte

The predecessor organization of the Werkbund, the Wiener Werkstätte, was founded in Vienna in 1903. This association of architects, artists, artisans, and merchants aimed at promoting and coordinating interactions between industrialists, artists, and merchants for the successful production and marketing of arts and crafts products. The peak of the workshops' activity came between 1905 and 1910, but their influence continued throughout the 1910s, contributing to the development of arts and crafts and the strengthening of cultural ties in society.

In 1913, the Wiener Werkstätte underwent a significant reorganization, becoming part of a division of the Werkbund. The main difference between the Wiener Werkstätte and the Werkbund lay in their approach to production: each piece was created in a single copy, emphasizing the uniqueness of each work. This characteristic made the Wiener Werkstätte renowned among art and architecture connoisseurs and contributed to the development of an individual design style.

Josef Hofmann, the founder of the Wiener Werkstätte and the Austrian Werkbund, became a significant figure in the worlds of design and architecture. In his work, he continued the tradition of rational Art Nouveau begun in the 1900s, rejecting ornate floral patterns in favor of restrained and laconic forms. The designer gradually gravitated toward strict and abstract solutions, focusing on functional structures and everyday objects. His style, characterized by the constant use of squares and cubes, led to his nickname "Square Hofmann," emphasizing his unique approach to design. Hofmann's contributions to architecture and design continue to inspire modern artists, making his work relevant and in demand.

Despite significant successes, the Werkbund in Austria faced criticism from their peers. In particular, in 1913, Viennese architect Adolf Loos published a critical article entitled "Ornament and Crime." In this work, he opposed ornamentation, façade design, and external decorativeness; his views were more radical than those of Hofmann. Loos raised important questions about functionality and simplicity in architecture, which sparked heated debate among representatives of Austrian modernism.

Loos argued that all decoration represented humanity's childhood, which must be overcome, and that ornament was an erotic symbol inherent in the lowest stage of development. His radical ideas irritated his contemporaries, and architectural projects such as the "House Without Eyebrows" and the "Café Nihilism" were often criticized. Nevertheless, Loos had a significant influence on the development of functionalism, and his essay "Ornament and Crime" became a cult work that changed ideas about design and architecture.

Switzerland. Werkbund Division

In 1913, a Werkbund division was founded in Switzerland, simultaneously with a similar organization in Austria. The Swiss Werkbund was an association of artists and designers, uniting local groups located in various regions and cities of the country. Unlike the German Werkbund, the Swiss groups operated autonomously, pursuing their own ideals and approaches. This independence allowed them to develop unique traditions and approaches in art and design, reflecting the diversity of Swiss culture.

The architect Alfred Altherr was appointed director. Members of the Swiss Werkbund sought to develop cooperation between art and industry in Switzerland. To achieve this goal, they published articles in the magazine Revue Mensuelle de l'Oeuvre, published in Lausanne. This initiative promoted the integration of artistic and industrial design, which positively impacted the cultural and economic development of the region.

Charles Jeanneret, better known as Le Corbusier, is an important figure in Swiss architecture at the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1910s, he moved away from traditional wooden Swiss chalets, introducing radical changes in architectural and design approaches. His ideas and concepts had a significant influence on the development of the modern architectural style, making him one of the key representatives of modernism in architecture. Le Corbusier strove to create functional and aesthetically pleasing spaces, which was reflected in his designs and contributed to the formation of new standards in construction.

In 1914, at the Venice Architecture Biennale, Le Corbusier presented his innovative "Ino House" project. This structure featured an open frame of concrete floor slabs and slender reinforced concrete columns, complemented by a side staircase. The main innovation was that the design allowed for freely organizing the interior layout without restricting the building's external appearance. "Dom-Ino" became a symbol of the architectural revolution, opening new horizons in the design and construction of residential spaces.

Netherlands. "Amsterdam School" and "De Stijl"

In the Netherlands in the 1910s, there was a rivalry between expressionism and functionalism. Expressionism in this country was represented by the "Amsterdam School", which arose as a result of social reforms aimed at the mass construction of affordable housing. Architecture became the dominant media in this movement. From an aesthetic point of view, the "Amsterdam School" was influenced by William Morris and his Arts and Crafts movement, which emphasized the need to transform everyday objects. Its development was also influenced by the art of the East Indies and European Art Nouveau of the early 20th century. This synthesis resulted in unique architectural forms that reflected a desire for aesthetic and functional perfection.

Representatives of the "Amsterdam School" perceived design as a way to convey emotion, which is reflected in the compositions of their buildings, combining straight, angular, rounded, and organic forms. The architecture of this school is typically represented by complexes of buildings, each of which is distinguished by expressive forms, including towers, decorative spires, and richly decorated windows and doors. This approach to design not only creates visually appealing objects but also creates a unique atmosphere that promotes an emotional response in viewers. The "Amsterdam School" style continues to influence modern architectural design, emphasizing the importance of harmony between aesthetics and functionality.

One of the key features of the architecture of the "Amsterdam School" is the mastery of brickwork, which is manifested in the use of different types and types of brick weave. This technique not only gives the buildings a unique visual style but also emphasizes their artistic value. The architects of this movement skillfully combined the textures and colors of brick, creating expressive facades that became the hallmark of the style. The masterly brickwork of the "Amsterdam School" demonstrates a high degree of craftsmanship and attention to detail, making these buildings not only functional but also aesthetically pleasing.

The "House of Shipping" in Amsterdam is a prime example of the "Amsterdam School" architecture. This building was designed by three architects: Johan van der Mey, Michel de Klerk, and Piet Kramer. Its shape resembles a ship, symbolizing the importance of shipping to the Netherlands. The interior and façade of the building are replete with maritime motifs, emphasizing the historical significance of this industry for the country. The "House of Shipping" not only reflects a unique architectural style but also serves as a reminder of the maritime history of the Netherlands.

Since 1918, the Amsterdam School began publishing the magazine "Wendingen," which can be translated as "revolution." The typography created by Hendrikus Wijdeveld for this publication had a significant influence on the graphic design of the Amsterdam School, even appearing in the design of building signs and mailboxes. The magazine was distinguished by its distinctive square format and original Japanese thread binding, which distinguished it from other newspapers and magazines of the time. This unique style contributed to the popularization of new approaches in design and typography, leaving a noticeable mark on the history of graphic art.

While the Amsterdam School enjoyed popularity in the Netherlands, its opponents, who opposed ornamentation, achieved international success. This group, founded in 1917 in Leiden, is known as De Stijl (The Style). The main representative of the group was the artist Theo van Doesburg, and a key member was the famous painter Piet Mondrian. Their works significantly influenced the development of modern art and architecture, affirming the ideas of minimalism and functionalism.

De Stijl was active in various fields, including publishing and architecture, and developed a unique concept of geometric abstractionism known as "neoplasticism." This concept represents a utopia of a new plastic culture based on the "primary elements": lines, geometric forms, and the primary colors of the spectrum. The principles of Neoplasticism continue to influence art and design, shaping the modern perception of aesthetics and harmony.

The simplicity and vividness of the Neoplasticists' visual language significantly influenced the evolution of Western European and American modernism in the 20th century. This style, focused on purity of form and expressive color, became the foundation for new artistic movements and approaches. Striving for harmony and rationality in art, the Neoplasticists left a significant mark on the work of many artists, shaping a number of contemporary movements. Thus, their contribution to the development of modernism cannot be overestimated, as it opened new horizons for experimentation and self-expression in art.

France. The Birth of Art Deco

In Paris, which became the center of world culture at the beginning of the 20th century, there were neither large industrial associations nor their opponents. This city continued to be the arena for Diaghilev's bohemian ballets, as well as a creative home for such great artists as Picasso, Braque, and Matisse. In the field of design, revolutionary changes in fashion occurred at this time. The 1910s were the heyday of Paul Poiret, who is considered the founder of the Art Deco style. This fashion designer had a significant influence on the development of fashion, introducing innovative ideas and bold decisions that changed the concept of a woman's wardrobe.