The History of Design in the 1960s and 1970s. Part One: Industry and Architecture

Contents:

• Metabolism, Structuralism, Brutalism
• Radical Design
• Design Education

The 1960s saw significant changes in global architecture that would shape its future development for many decades. While the unified "International Style" dominated in the 1950s, several independent movements emerged in the 1960s, such as Brutalism, Structuralism, and Metabolism. These new trends brought diversity to the architectural landscape and opened up new opportunities for designers and urban planners, which in turn influenced the formation of modern urban space.

During this decade, architectural theory reached its peak, becoming the subject of critical reflection on the essence of architecture and its possible directions. A significant event was the emergence of postmodern architecture, which began to take shape at this time, offering new approaches and concepts in the design of buildings and the urban environment. Postmodernism was a response to traditional architectural norms, introducing a diversity of styles and ideas, and emphasizing context and cultural identity.

In this article, we will take a detailed look at the changes and trends that occurred in industry and architecture in the 1960s and 1970s. This period was marked by significant achievements and innovations that influenced the development of these fields. Industry saw the active introduction of new technologies, which contributed to increased productivity and efficiency. The architecture of that time was characterized by a search for new forms and styles that reflected social and cultural changes. We will analyze the key events and projects that had a significant impact on these areas, as well as their legacy, which continues to be felt in the modern world.

Metabolism, Structuralism, Brutalism

Japanese architects, among whom Kenzo Tange stands out, presented the manifesto "Metabolism" on the eve of the 1960 World Design Conference. In this document, the experts proposed viewing the city as an ecosystem capable of spontaneous change. Their approach emphasizes the flexibility and adaptability of urban structures, enabling the creation of dynamic spaces that respond to the demands of the times and the needs of residents. The manifesto became the basis for the further development of architectural concepts in which the integration of nature and the urban environment is an important element.

One of the Metabolists' significant inventions was tree-like houses. These unique structures feature powerful "trunks" housing utilities such as electrical cables and water pipes. Removable residential units are suspended from these trunks, allowing residents to remove their apartments and install them in a new tower in a different location when moving. In the 1970s, Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa realized this concept in Tokyo with the Nakagin building. In this building, the residential units were autonomous units. However, despite the innovation, separating the units from the tower without dismantling the entire structure was impossible. Unfortunately, this unique building no longer exists, but its idea continues to inspire architects around the world.

In the Dutch architecture of the 1960s, the key Jacob Bakema and Aldo van Eyck are prominent figures in this field. Dutch architects such as these are often called structuralists, although they did not use the term themselves. In their designs and texts, Bakema and van Eyck emphasized mathematical regularities, viewing architecture not as a simple sum of buildings but as a holistic environment with a specific structure. The designs of architects such as Hermann Hertzberger and Piet Blom, also considered structuralists, demonstrate the concept of buildings as homogeneous objects capable of infinite expansion in various directions. This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between space and architectural form, which makes Dutch architecture of the 1960s unique and relevant in the context of contemporary urban development.

Architecture of the 1960s is often associated with brutalism. This term covers a wide range of buildings that emphasize massive structures and showcase exposed concrete façades. In a narrower context, brutalism refers to British architecture, particularly the work of architects such as Peter and Alison Smithson. Brutalism became an important movement in architecture, emphasizing functionality and the use of modern materials, making it a significant phenomenon in the history of architecture.

The UK, and especially London, occupies a key position on the cultural map of the 1960s. This period saw the formation of avant-garde pop music, the emergence of new artistic trends, and the emergence of youth fashion. British architect Cedric Price, the author of the concept for the Fun Palace, a large-scale multifunctional building made of lightweight metal structures, is considered a pioneer of mass entertainment architecture. His ideas had a significant influence on the development of modern spaces for leisure and cultural interaction, making London a hub of innovation and creativity during this seminal period.

Architectural Design magazine, which has become the leading architectural publication in the UK thanks to Theo Crosby, graphic designer, editor and organizer exhibitions, in the early 1960s, he actively published projects by the Archigram group, such as "computer cities," "plugged cities," and "wandering cities." These projects are presented in the form of photomontage compositions, accompanied by ironic explanations from the authors. Archigram's works often feature the motif of the city as a continuous, homogeneous "grid," into which "clumps" of various functions are integrated at different levels. During this period, young avant-garde architects from different countries were well aware of each other's activities, and their ideas intersected, creating a single architectural direction.

Radical Design

Avant-garde architectural groups of the 1960s, known not only for their buildings but also for their active discussions, publications, and seminars, significantly influenced the development of product design. Their utopian ideas about the future of architecture and design shaped new approaches and concepts that continue to influence contemporary art and architecture.

At the University of Florence, students led by Leonardo Savioli and other prominent architects of the Tuscan school studied the experience of their foreign colleagues, especially British ones. Inspired by the work of the Archigram group, they united in artistic associations such as Archizoom, Superstudio, Gruppo 9999, and Gruppo UFO. The students organized exhibitions, created manifestos, and published series of drawings in specialized magazines, supplementing them with detailed explanations. This became an important part of the architectural discourse of the time, reflecting the desire for innovation and experimentation in contemporary design.

Furniture and lighting designs developed by the Archizoom and Superstudio groups for the Superarchitettura exhibition in Pistoia in 1966 were realized by the Poltronova factory. This event marked the beginning of the integration of Italian radical architecture with the furniture industry. By the early 1970s, many radical architects, including Florentines like Andrea Branzi of the Archizoom group, as well as northern masters like Alessandro Mendini and Michele de Lucchi, had settled in Milan. Designing furniture for leading Italian manufacturers became their primary activity, contributing to the transformation of radical architecture into radical design. This evolution has had a significant impact on the development of modern design and architecture, opening new horizons for creative expression and functionality in the interior.

In 1971, the Museum of Modern Art in New York held an exhibition called Italy: The New Domestic Landscape. As part of one of the sections, Italian designers were asked to create not just individual objects, but entire "environments" - installations representing prototypes of modern dwellings. Among the exhibitors were several groups of architects from Florence, who agreed to participate only on their own terms. Instead of developing new pieces, they presented conceptual designs. The renowned critic Germano Celant, in an article published in the exhibition catalogue, first described them as radical designers, a term that soon became popular in Italy.

Ettore Sottsass is a key figure in the radical design movement. He is significantly older than his associates and already in the 1960s achieved international recognition as an industrial designer. Sottsass collaborated extensively with the Archizoom group and the Poltronova factory, which contributed to his influence in the design world. His texts, often filled with poetic imagery and allusions to Beat literature, reflect a deeply emotional nature. However, he once succinctly and clearly outlined the fundamental idea of ​​the radical movement: prima la emozione e poi la funzione (first emotion, then function). This phrase became a motto for many designers, emphasizing the importance of emotional perception in design.

The program presented in the Superarchitettura exhibition manifesto emphasizes the contemporary realities of overproduction and overconsumption. In a context where people don't always need a new thing, strong emotion becomes their motivation, generating an irrational thirst for possession. Thus, objects should first and foremost be perceived as images capable of evoking emotions and impressions.

At the time, this was an innovative approach that proved successful. The products designed by radical designers enjoyed commercial success, which came as a surprise to them. This brought Italian design worldwide recognition and made Milan the center of international interior design, a position it remains to this day. However, Italian design owes its reputation not only to radical designers. Other Northern Italian masters, not affiliated with the radical movement, also contributed to its success, including Marco Zanuso, the Castiglioni brothers, Enzo Mari, Tobia and Afra Scarpa, Paola Navone, and many others. In the 1960s and 1970s, they created their most significant works, which became style icons and continued the traditions of Italian design.

In the 1960s, industrial production experienced a breakthrough thanks to new technologies that made it possible to produce large, durable items from molded plastic. This ushered in the era of plastic capsule chairs, mobile homes, and even houses assembled from small quantities of factory-made plastic. These living capsules were easily disassembled and reassembled in a new location, significantly increasing their mobility and adaptability. Mass production of such designs, including popular models like Jean-Benjamin Maneval's "Six Shell Bubble House" and Matti Suuronen's Futuro, reached runs of several hundred. These innovative solutions have become a symbol of the desire for a comfortable and mobile life in a rapidly changing world.

Architects considered the possibility of using the buildings as individual country houses or the creation of complex structures on pylons with internal communications, reminiscent of Metabolist projects. This concept made extensive use not only of rigid plastic elements but also of foam plastic, which completely replaced traditional materials such as horsehair and spring blocks in upholstered furniture. Synthetic fabrics and films also became popular, particularly in clothing in the late 1960s, as seen in the work of designers such as André Courrèges and Pierre Cardin. These innovations in materials and design became emblematic of the times, reflecting changes in architecture and fashion, which continued to evolve, opening up new horizons for creativity and functionality. Furniture and household appliances of the 1960s and early 1970s, made from new types of plastic, were noticeably different in style from the products of previous eras. They were distinguished by simple forms and massiveness, and many objects were painted in bright spectral colors. During this era, furniture often featured a single support that widened toward the bottom, known as a pedestal. In addition, many items, including vinyl record players, took on a spherical shape, emphasizing a modern and innovative approach to design. These changes in furniture design reflected a desire for functionality and aesthetics, creating a unique atmosphere of the time.

The term "Space Age Design" is widely used among fans of retro style. This style refers to the era that began with the launch of the first artificial satellite in 1957. Space Age design reflects humanity's desire for space exploration and technological progress. It is characterized by futuristic forms, vibrant colors, and the use of new materials. This style continues to inspire designers and collectors, maintaining its relevance and appeal in the modern world.

Images associated with space exploration have had a significant influence on the design of everyday objects in their time. For example, the spherical televisions that became fashionable were designed to mimic the helmets of American astronauts. The popular motif of spherical living capsules is also directly related to the shape of the descent modules of the first Soviet spacecraft. At the same time, "one-legged" furniture on pedestals became popular, as such interiors appear adapted to zero-gravity conditions, creating the impression that the furniture is attached to the floor. Space themes in design not only inspired designers but also became a symbol of progress and humanity's pursuit of new horizons. Frenchman Pierre Paulin, Italian Joe Colombo, and Dane Verner Panton became leading figures in interior design, a style that reimagines traditional notions of living space. Their works reflect the revolutionary spirit of their era, where familiar elements such as tables, chairs, and cabinets gave way to multifunctional objects. Instead of standard furniture, they introduced undulating floor and wall shapes, and lamps were replaced with luminous surfaces, creating unique spaces. These designers, like science fiction writers, created alternative worlds in which the interior becomes not just a collection of objects, but a dynamic space for living and creating. Their influence on modern interior design continues to be felt today, inspiring new creators to experiment with form and function.

In parallel with visionary design, and another approach—one that was highly applied, functional, and rational. This style was actively supported by the Ulm School of Design and the Braun company, which established close cooperation with the school in the late 1950s. The "Braun Style" reached its peak in the 1960s, when all of the company's products began to be developed by its own industrial design bureau under the direction of Dieter Rams. The Ulm School of Design lasted only fifteen years, closing in 1968. However, its teaching methodology, known as the "Ulm Model," was adopted by many design schools around the world.

Design education

In the 1960s, a structured international system of education in the field of design was formed. Prior to this, there were only a few educational institutions teaching industrial design, each with its own unique approaches. Most designers of the time had backgrounds in architecture or applied arts. However, in the 1960s, largely due to the influence of the "Ulm model," schools with similar curricula began to open in various countries. This led to the emergence of the first generation of certified industrial designers, significantly changing the landscape of the profession and influencing the development of design as a whole.

In the history of Russian design, a key event of the decade was the establishment of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Technical Aesthetics (VNIITE) in 1962. Initially a small organization, over time the institute significantly expanded in size and opened branches in many republics of the USSR. VNIITE played a vital role in the development of design in the country, contributing to the formation of new standards and approaches in the field of technical aesthetics. The Institute became a center for scientific research and development, which had a positive impact on the quality of domestic products and their appearance.

The institution was founded by Yuri Borisovich Solovyov, who also served as the first director. Solovyov, with an unfinished architectural education, displayed enthusiasm and a certain adventurousness in his work. The institute functioned as a division of the State Committee for Scientific and Technical Cooperation, where its curator and immediate supervisor was Jermen Gvishiani. Gvishiani was married to the daughter of Alexei Kosygin, who served as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.

One of the key objectives of the institute was to increase the competitiveness of Soviet plants, especially in mechanical engineering, in international markets. In this area, VNIITE achieved some success, albeit minor. Nevertheless, the availability of administrative resources allowed the institute to annually expand its powers, strengthen international ties, and increase the number of employees. This contributed to the creation of more effective conditions for the development of domestic production and integration into the global economy.

In the first years of its existence, the atmosphere at the institute was particularly favorable. Solovyov assembled a team of talented practical designers and several young philosophers, among whom Georgy Shchedrovitsky stood out. They passionately developed Soviet design theory, which contributed to the development of innovative ideas in this field. Even in subsequent years, despite the dismissal of some employees for unreliability, VNIITE continued to be a club of progressive intellectuals, wits, and creative individuals. The institute became a center where practical experience and philosophical reflection on design merged, leading to significant achievements in this field.

The Soviet system of agencies, including certified designers such as VNIITE, its branches, design bureaus at factories, and faculties and departments at universities, attracted the interest of colleagues from abroad. This model of professional organization in the USSR provided designers with guaranteed employment, which contrasted with the conditions of a competitive economy, where success depended on market factors. In the socialist countries of Eastern Europe, bureaucratic organizations dedicated to design were also created, similar to VNITE and its subdivisions, which emphasized the appeal of the Soviet approach to organizing design activities.

In the next article in the "History of Design" series, we will examine the features of graphic design in the 1960s and 1970s. Find out how this period influenced the development of visual culture and what stylistic directions became popular at that time.

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Also explore:

• History of Design in the 1960s and 1970s. Part Two: Graphic Design
• History of Design in the 1950s-1960s. Part Two: Graphic Design
• History of Design in the 1950s–1960s. Part One: Industry and Architecture
• History of Design. 1940s–1950s
• History of Design. 1930s–1940s
• Design History: 1920s–1930s — Bauhaus and VKhUTEMAS
• Design History: 1910s–1920s — Werkbund, Paul Poiret, and the Russian Avant-garde
• Design History: The Very Beginning of the Twentieth Century — Art Nouveau