5 Interesting Facts About How Primary School Became Compulsory

Contents:

• Compulsory primary schools appeared in Russia only after the revolution, and not immediately
• At least ten years passed from the declaration to the actual introduction of compulsory primary school
• To introduce compulsory primary school, teachers had to be literally mobilized as if into the army
• Unified curricula began to take shape only in the 1930s, and before that, children were taught as best they could
• Not everyone was happy about compulsory primary school

In the modern world, free secondary education is considered the norm and accessible to everyone. However, just a hundred years ago, even primary education was not compulsory for everyone. Moreover, the introduction of compulsory primary education caused a lot of controversy and discontent among the population. In this text, we will talk about the difficulties and contradictions that Russia faced on the path to implementing compulsory primary education.

Compulsory primary schools in Russia appeared only after the revolution, and not immediately.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the need to introduce universal primary education was actively discussed in pre-revolutionary Russia, but this measure was never implemented due to a lack of funds. The exceptions were the Estland and Courland provinces, which were part of the Russian Empire. In these regions, primary education became compulsory as early as the 1870s, which contributed to an increase in literacy rates and improved social conditions.

Although most primary schools in Russia were open to all classes and free, their number did not always meet the needs of the population. Many children were rejected due to a lack of space. In rural areas, the situation was even more difficult: schools were absent in many villages, and the nearest educational institution could be located at a considerable distance. This created additional difficulties for families seeking to provide an education for their children.

By 1890, only 15% of school-age children had access to education. Until the 1917 Revolution, the number of schools continued to increase, but still did not meet the educational needs of all children. Many peasants and members of the urban poor did not consider it necessary to teach their daughters to read and write, while in more affluent families, girls were taught at home. As a result, even by 1915, only 35.6% of primary school students were girls. This highlights the significant social and educational barriers of the time that limited women's access to education.

Most primary schools in the past lacked state funding and were often parochial or financed by zemstvos, philanthropists, and community activists. These educational institutions played a key role in the education of children, providing access to knowledge and forming the foundations of cultural and social development.

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Pre-revolutionary Russia had a unique educational system that differed from modern approaches. In this context, 10 key facts about schools of the time can be highlighted. First, education in Russia was not accessible to everyone, but only to a limited number of citizens, primarily from noble and merchant families. Second, most schools had a religious slant, which determined the curriculum. Third, pre-revolutionary schools emphasized classical subjects such as Latin and Greek, as well as theology. Fourth, instruction was often provided through private lessons, which made it more individualized. Fifth, state schools only began to develop in the 19th century, which contributed to an increase in student numbers. Sixth, so-called public schools operated in some regions of Russia, aiming to provide a basic education for peasant children. Seventh, the high literacy rate in pre-revolutionary Russia was achieved through the initiatives of local communities and charities. Eighth, various types of educational institutions existed, including gymnasiums and realschule (real schools), which provided varying levels of education. Ninth, school provision often depended on local authorities and their funding, leading to significant differences in educational standards. Tenth, educational reforms carried out in the late 19th and early 20th centuries began to change the situation and open up new opportunities for students. These facts highlight the importance of studying the educational system of pre-revolutionary Russia and its impact on modern society.

The lack of compulsory primary education became one of the key reasons for criticism of the tsarist regime. In 1918, after the revolution, the new government adopted a decree abolishing all existing types of schools and replacing them with a unified labor school. This school was declared free and compulsory for all children of both sexes aged 8 to 17. Such measures contributed to improving the accessibility and quality of education, which played an important role in the further development of society.

The Bolsheviks realized that introducing compulsory education in such a vast country, especially under the difficult conditions of that time, was impossible quickly and simultaneously. Therefore, the decree included a caveat: universal education should be introduced only in places where the necessary conditions had been created. The primary objective remained the establishment of a unified school network, which became the primary goal of the education reform process.

In the early years of Soviet power, conditions for universal education, even at the primary school level, were extremely unfavorable. New educational institutions were not opened, and existing ones were actively closed. The civil war and famine significantly worsened the situation, destroying old educational institutions while new ones had not yet had time to emerge. Funding for the construction and maintenance of schools was lacking, both from the central government and local authorities. In 1922, the first Soviet Minister of Education, Lunacharsky, noted that primary schools were insufficient to meet the needs of half of the children. Thus, the educational system was going through hard times, which put the future generation at risk.

The educational institutions that continued to function during difficult times managed to survive without writing materials or even benches. They were located in buildings not intended for educational purposes, such as the estates of former landowners, the homes of priests and dispossessed peasants, as well as in people's houses, churches, and village clubs. Despite the lack of standard conditions, these institutions continued to fulfill their educational mission and provide access to knowledge for the local population.

In 1923, amid financial shortages, the authorities decided to temporarily introduce tuition fees. That same year, the Council of People's Commissars began developing a ten-year plan for the introduction of universal education. One of the key steps was the adoption of the Charter of the Unified Labor School, which defined the primary school format as a four-year program. This format remained unchanged until the 1969 reform, when the duration of primary education was reduced to three years.

At least ten years passed between the declaration and the actual introduction of compulsory primary education.

On August 31, 1925, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars adopted a resolution on the introduction of universal primary education and the creation of a school network in the RSFSR. Despite this, the document did not introduce compulsory education, but only outlined plans for its implementation. The resolution stated that a four-year first-level labor school should become accessible and free for all children aged 8 to 11 no later than the 1933/1934 academic year. However, until this goal was achieved, tuition fees remained.

The resolution defined the basic principles for organizing the network of labor schools. In particular, the number of first-level schools was calculated based on a ratio of one teacher per 40 students, with a limit of two groups per teacher. Schools were to be opened within a radius of three versts (just over three kilometers) from populated areas. If schools needed to be established at greater distances, provision was made for transporting children or organizing boarding schools for accommodation. Furthermore, the document established principles for school financing, which facilitated more effective management of the educational process. By 1926–1927, detailed local plans for the implementation of universal compulsory primary education had been developed in almost all territories and regions. The 1927 Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) established the procedure for its implementation in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). According to this document, local authorities were granted the right to independently make decisions on the introduction of compulsory primary education, subject to certain conditions. This innovation was an important step towards ensuring access to education for all segments of the population and contributed to an increase in the literacy rate in the country.

• there are only enough buildings and space for teaching in two shifts at most;
• there are no more than 40 students per teacher;
• primary school will be free;
• schools will be provided with everything necessary;
• teachers are guaranteed a salary in the amount established by law (note that this amount was very small - 23-50 rubles depending on the wage zone, which even at the top limit barely reached 75% of the lowest industrial worker's rate).

Initially, compulsory primary education was introduced exclusively for children aged 8. Later, its scope was expanded to cover all children aged 8 to 11. This decision is aimed at improving the level of education and ensuring equal opportunities for children at an early age.

At the time of the study, about 50% of children in this age group did not have reading and writing skills, but the situation began to change for the better. From 1923 to 1928, the number of primary schools increased from 60 thousand to 80 thousand, which contributed to the growth of the number of students from 4.3 million to 6.1 million. This indicates positive dynamics in the field of education and an increase in literacy among children during this period.

In 1930, against the backdrop of the successes achieved, the decree "On universal compulsory primary education" was adopted. This document established a mandatory minimum level of education for children aged 8-10 in the USSR. In accordance with it, a four-year primary school course was introduced, and in industrial cities, factory districts and workers' settlements - a mandatory seven-year school. This decision was an important step towards ensuring access to education for all children, which contributed to increased literacy and the development of society as a whole.

The decree mandated the admission of all children aged 8–10 who were not currently enrolled in labor schools in the fall of 1930. In addition, it was proposed to organize accelerated two-year and one-year courses for adolescents aged 11–15 who had not completed primary education. According to the document, parents and guardians were obliged to send their children to educational institutions, otherwise they faced legal liability. This decision reflected the state's commitment to ensuring universal education and eliminating illiteracy among young people.

The state increased funding for school construction and the education system as a whole, while simultaneously encouraging society to actively participate in this process. This was achieved through social competitions, which essentially amounted to unpaid overtime, as well as through voluntary contributions. This collaboration between the state and society is aimed at improving the quality of education and creating a comfortable learning environment for children. Low-income families were provided with financial assistance for the purchase of textbooks, stationery, clothing, footwear, and meals. In addition, free preschool preparation was provided for the children of workers and peasants. This was carried out through community service, meaning that teachers, students from pedagogical institutes and technical schools, and high school students provided their services free of charge. Despite efforts to expand educational infrastructure, the shortage of classrooms remained a significant problem. According to official data, universal primary education in the country was successfully implemented only by 1934, when the number of schools reached 110,000, and the number of students was 14.1 million. However, the actual implementation of this educational project continued until the late 1930s, and the question of its full completion in the pre-war years remains controversial. For example, in the Mordovian ASSR, all school-age children were enrolled in primary education as early as 1934, while in the North Caucasus this process was not completed until the early 1940s. Thus, the clear differences in educational accessibility across the country's regions highlight the complexity and diversity of the educational situation at that time.

The Decree "On Universal Compulsory Primary Education" stipulated mandatory completion of a full seven-year school course for children who had completed primary school, beginning in 1929-1931. However, this only applied to schoolchildren from industrial cities, factory districts, and workers' settlements. Universal compulsory seven-year education became a reality much later, taking a considerable amount of time. In the 1959/1960 academic year, compulsory eight-year education was introduced in the USSR, and in 1972, a decree was adopted on comprehensive secondary education, encompassing 10 grades. These changes were an important step in the development of the country's educational system, ensuring accessibility and quality of education for all children.

To introduce compulsory primary education, teachers had to be literally mobilized as if into an army.

To implement universal compulsory primary education, it was necessary not only to increase the number of schools but also to ensure a sufficient number of qualified teachers. Even during the Tsarist period, one of the main obstacles to the introduction of compulsory primary education was the shortage of teaching staff. Solving this problem was a key step in ensuring access to education for all children, which would contribute to raising literacy rates and developing society as a whole.

During the years of the revolution, the number of educated people in the country decreased significantly. Many died, others emigrated, and some refused to cooperate with the new government. The authorities sought to purge the teaching ranks of those they considered alien class elements. In the 1920s, four major purges took place, and during the largest in 1928, 45% of teachers were fired. Many teachers left their positions voluntarily, moving to other jobs. The main reasons for this were low salaries, delays in payment, and the need to fulfill additional public responsibilities, such as combating idleness among the adult population. This situation negatively affected the quality of education and the level of professional training of teachers, which subsequently affected the entire education system in the country.

In 1930-1931, educational institutions were provided with only 30% of the required number of teaching staff for primary schools. This significant shortage of qualified specialists negatively impacted the quality of education, which became an obstacle to the full development of the educational system.

The implementation of the teacher mobilization experience used in the implementation of the 1919 decree on the eradication of illiteracy was an important step in providing educational institutions with human resources. Strengthened control over the placement of graduates of pedagogical institutes and technical schools allowed them to work in schools while still studying. All individuals who had received a pedagogical education, even before the revolution, could be recalled from their current positions and sent to schools under threat of administrative action, provided they had worked in the profession for at least a year. Although the law provided for the continuation of wages at the previous place of work, in practice this requirement was often not met, especially in rural educational institutions. Thus, despite official measures, the system faced serious difficulties in ensuring a stable staffing of schools.

Due to the acute shortage of teaching staff, accelerated training of new teachers was organized. To this end, a network of pedagogical institutes, technical schools, and specialized teacher training courses was created, significantly increasing the number of students. Initially, the courses were planned to last one year. However, due to a critical teacher shortage in the 1930/1931 school year, the training period was reduced to two to three months. By the late 1930s, the duration of training had increased to six to eight months. The main participants in these courses were Komsomol and trade union members, who, upon completion, were required to work at the school for three years. Between 1931 and 1935, 148,000 people completed these courses, significantly improving the teaching workforce situation in the country.

As a result of these measures, the number of teachers increased significantly, but many of them had only a basic education and had completed short courses. This negatively impacted their professionalism and the level of knowledge imparted to students. In 1931, a special commission of the People's Commissariat of Education noted that teachers were making errors when grading notebooks, highlighting the need to improve the qualifications and educational level of the teaching staff.

In 1933, the People's Commissariat of Education introduced a permanent system of professional development for teachers. In the mid-1930s, criminal liability for delayed salary payments was introduced for teachers, a significant step in improving working conditions. Salaries were increased by 10-25%, which, although insignificant, contributed to the return of 13,000 previously resigned teachers to schools in the RSFSR alone. Teachers also began to be gradually relieved of their community service responsibilities, allowing them to focus on the educational process and improving the quality of instruction. These measures became important stages in reforming the country's education system.

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In the young USSR, the shortage of teachers was replenished in various ways. Initially, the state focused on training personnel through the creation of pedagogical institutes and schools. An important step was attracting graduates from other specialties to work in the educational field. Refresher courses were organized in the summer, which made it possible to quickly train those wishing to become teachers.

In addition, distance learning and self-study methods were actively implemented. Experienced teachers were used to improve the quality of education, sharing their knowledge with novice specialists.

Young specialists were also sent to hard-to-reach areas, which made it possible to ensure the educational process even in the most remote corners of the country. Thus, thanks to a comprehensive approach to solving the problem of teacher shortages, the Soviet education system was able to develop and cope with the challenges of the time.

Unified curricula began to take shape only in the 1930s, and before that, children were taught as best they could.

In 1918, the Bolsheviks made radical changes to the education system, abolishing grades, exams, and homework. The class-lesson system was abolished, replaced by student self-government. Labor was proclaimed the foundation of education. In this context, a circular was issued ordering the exclusion of textbooks from the school curriculum, as they did not meet the requirements of the new era and taught the "wrong things" and "wrong way." We have already reviewed these experiments and their consequences. New curricula and plans issued by the People's Commissariat of Education appeared only in 1920 and were optional. These curricula focused primarily on the native language and arithmetic in elementary schools. Physical education and aesthetic education, including drawing and singing, were also given significant roles. These changes marked an important step in the development of the educational system, emphasizing a holistic approach to learning and the comprehensive development of children.

Some experts considered traditional curricula outdated, and in 1921, the Scientific and Pedagogical Section of the State Academic Council (SAC) began reforming them. This resulted in the emergence of SAC curricula that transformed the approach to education. Students began studying not individual subjects but integrated complexes that combined knowledge from various fields. From 1924 to 1926, integrated curricula were introduced into the mandatory curriculum for elementary schools, promoting a more holistic understanding of educational material and an interdisciplinary approach to education.

The material was organized around three key areas: nature, work, and society. Integrated topics covered various aspects of life, such as "Domestic Animals," "Our City," "May Day," "Autumn Work in the Village," "Geography of Russia and Other Countries," "The Life of the Human Body," "History of Humanity," and "Child Health." Furthermore, the study of native language and arithmetic was also to take place within the framework of integrated topics. The basic idea was that this approach helps children develop thinking skills by moving from the specific to the general, which contributes to a deeper understanding of the world around them.

It soon became apparent that curricula consisting only of fragmented information from various sciences, as well as insufficient attention to teaching literacy and arithmetic, did not provide students with the necessary knowledge and skills. Furthermore, the knowledge sets created were often not appropriate for the age and level of preparation of schoolchildren, and the connections between the various facts presented to children were often artificial. The principle of "from the specific to the whole" did not function properly. Even experienced teachers struggled to adapt to the new methodology, which called into question the effectiveness of teaching for newcomers to the school after short-term pedagogical training. This underscores the need to rethink educational approaches and create more holistic and age-appropriate curricula that will foster deep understanding and acquisition of knowledge.

As a result, the integrated approach to teaching was implemented in varying degrees. Some teachers employed questionable methods, such as the "whole word" method, which ignored the sound structure of words and hindered the acquisition of spelling. Such practices could negatively impact students' literacy, as ignoring phonetics hindered the development of stable reading and writing skills. Effective teaching must be based on a balanced approach that incorporates both the phonetic and lexical aspects of language.

In 1925, Lunacharsky noted an important problem in education, stating: "The teacher puzzles over the GUS program, while the children grow up illiterate." This statement highlights the ongoing challenges facing both educators and students. Parents also expressed dissatisfaction with the state of schools and the quality of education. It is important to address the need to reform the education system to ensure children have access to quality education and prepare them for life in modern society.

Many teachers of the old school continued to ignore new teaching methods, adhering to traditional approaches. Comprehensive plans were often drawn up only on paper for reporting, without real implementation in the classroom. Primers and textbooks were often used secretly until the mid-1920s, as new resources appeared slowly and in insufficient quantities. These materials were varied and sometimes confusing, which discouraged teachers from using them. As a result, the transition to modern teaching methods was delayed, and many students were left without access to up-to-date knowledge.

Between 1925 and 1927, the People's Commissariat of Education recognized its mistakes and moved away from the GUS schemes. On September 5, 1931, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) issued the decree "On Primary and Secondary Schools," which ended experiments in school education. This decree condemned the use of untested methods and became the starting point for the revival of the traditional education system. The class-lesson system, a clear subject schedule, and the introduction of homework and grading were restored, which contributed to the stabilization of the educational process. Thus, this period became an important stage in the history of Soviet education, returning it to traditional foundations.

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Pedology in Soviet schools: from innovation to pseudoscience

Pedology, as a science about Child development in the Soviet Union experienced a remarkable rise and a sharp decline. At its inception, this discipline promised revolutionary changes in approaches to teaching and raising children, based on modern scientific methods and research. It attracted the attention of educators and psychologists who were seeking new ways to understand child psychology and effectively interact with students. However, over time, pedology began to deviate from its original ideas and fall victim to ideological manipulation. Instead of a scientific approach, pseudoscientific concepts began to emerge, distorting its foundations. Incorrect interpretations and excessive politicization of pedagogical methods led to pedology losing its scientific value and becoming perceived as pseudoscience. The collapse of pedology in Soviet schools was the result not only of scientific errors but also of pressure from the authorities. Many educators and scientists who attempted to preserve a scientific approach faced repression. As a result, pedology lost its popularity and was replaced by more traditional teaching methods that did not always take into account the individual characteristics of children.

Studying the history of pedology in Soviet schools shows the importance of a balance between innovation and scientific validity in pedagogy. It also highlights the need for a critical approach to new methods and concepts to avoid repeating the mistakes of the past. Understanding the reasons for the rise and fall of pedology can help modern educators and researchers create more effective strategies for the education and development of children.

A year later, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) concluded that it was necessary to create uniform subject programs for the entire country with a clearly defined and systematized set of knowledge. These programs were supposed to guarantee that schoolchildren mastered facts, the fundamentals of science, and developed written and oral communication skills, as well as completed mathematical exercises. Teachers were instructed to present the material consistently and systematically, accustoming children to working with textbooks.

In 1933, a decision was made to introduce standardized textbooks for educational institutions. In 1935, a unified internal regulation was established for elementary, junior high, and high schools. This regulation included the introduction of a unified five-point grading system and mandatory school uniforms. However, mandatory uniforms were initially introduced only in schools in Moscow, Leningrad, and other large cities.

The Soviet school began to take shape, acquiring the characteristics we associate with it today.

Not everyone was happy about mandatory primary school

The emergence of free education for children was good news for many families who previously did not have access to quality education. However, this innovation also drew criticism from certain groups who perceived the changes negatively.

The introduction of compulsory primary education in rural areas was met with considerable difficulties. Peasants disapproved of the school's intrusion into their private lives and their anti-religious views. The main reason for this resistance was that children in peasant families were traditionally considered the workers, and their labor was often a matter of survival. Before the revolution, even if a village had a school, the school year differed significantly from the city's: it began after the end of the agricultural season and ended before the start of planting. Children attended classes voluntarily, usually only until they mastered reading and writing. Girls were rarely sent to school, as they had to care for younger siblings and actively help with household chores. The prevailing view in peasant families was that girls didn't need to study.

The obligation to send children to school for four years, especially when the educational institution was located far away and required the child to be placed in a boarding school, significantly disrupted the usual routine.

Rural residents didn't understand the concept of labor school and believed that children were wasting their time. In 1924, peasants from Seliger argued: "A child will learn to write, read, and count in two years, and at school they'll re-teach him the same literacy he already knows. Why waste time?" One peasant woman from the Stavropol province expressed dissatisfaction with labor education: "They don't teach anything in schools anymore. All the children do is wash floors, sweep, and dig holes. Is that education? They can't even read, and the teacher hasn't assigned any homework."

This attitude toward labor schools underscored a distrust of the educational system and its goals, which created additional difficulties in educating and raising children in rural areas.

Peasants often neglected compulsory education, using the excuse of their children's lack of clothing and shoes to attend classes. In the poorest families, this excuse was genuine, while in more affluent cases it could be merely a cover. Children, however, were eager to attend school, which led to conflicts with their parents. Surveys showed that educational institutions created a more comfortable atmosphere for children than home.

In the cities, the Soviet education system caused discontent among the families of the "former," including the intelligentsia, nobles, entrepreneurs, tsarist officials, and clergy. Their children had previously studied in gymnasiums, progymnasiums, or theological schools, and also with private tutors. However, the new education system reduced all types of schools to a single labor school, which became mandatory. This institution banned the Law of God, considered an important subject in pre-revolutionary educational institutions, especially in religious families. Instead, it introduced socialist propaganda, which did not suit these families. The concept of a labor school was alien not only to the intelligentsia but also to the peasants. Numerous pedagogical experiments caused confusion and rejection among parents, highlighting the contradictions in the new educational policy.

Members of the intelligentsia sought to find schools that at least partially preserved the old order and pre-revolutionary teachers. Or, as long as possible, they taught their children at home using traditional methods—on their own, from surviving books, or with the help of tutors. Many sold furniture, paintings, and jewelry to achieve this.

K. D. Medvedskaya, who studied in the late 1920s, shared her memories of the difficulties of the educational process at that time in an interview with sociologist Sofya Chuykina. She noted that classes in schools at that time were poorly organized, and educational institutions were just beginning to develop. Given the shortage of qualified teachers, her stepfather assumed responsibility for her education, teaching classes for about three years. He taught all the subjects included in the school curriculum, which clearly demonstrated his preparation and desire to help. She was subsequently examined in all subjects at school, indicating that self-education and family support played a key role in her educational process. The introduction of compulsory education for children from certain families was a difficult challenge. N. P. Panaeva shares her experience: "They didn't want to send me to school not because of the academic process, but because they were afraid I would encounter street children. I grew up in the complete isolation typical of the 19th century. And so, in 1930, I arrived at a school where the atmosphere was dominated by red ties, stormtroopers, and other attributes of the time." This testimony highlights not only the difficulties of the transition to compulsory education but also the social changes occurring in society during this period.

The artist Ilya Glazunov, born in 1930 in Leningrad to a family of former nobles, shared his memories of schooling and his parents' attitudes toward this important stage of life. In 1938, he began studying at the school located across from their home on Bolshoy Prospekt in Petrogradskaya Storona. Before the start of the school year, his mother was worried, which she expressed in tears the day before. Uncle Koka tried to console her, noting that this was not a tragedy, but merely an education. However, the mother, lowering her voice, expressed her fears: "They will teach him all sorts of nasty things. He is so sociable... Where will it all end? I feel sorry for his childhood." These words underscore the parents' concern about the impact of the school curriculum on their child's personality and development. Glazunov's memoirs reflect the importance of paying close attention to the education and emotional well-being of children. Schools played a vital role in the adaptation of children from the "former" Soviet Union to Soviet reality. Thanks to educational institutions, they were able to learn new norms and values, which contributed to their successful integration into society. Primary sources of information play a key role in knowledge formation and decision-making. These include books, scholarly articles, online resources, and specialized databases. Each of these sources provides unique data and perspectives, allowing for a deeper understanding of the topic being studied. It is important to select reliable and authoritative sources to ensure the quality and accuracy of the information obtained. When using information from various sources, it is necessary to consider the relevance, credibility, and reputation of the authors. This will help to create a complete understanding of the subject of the research and avoid the dissemination of false information.

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