Fundamentals of Multimedia Learning for Digital Content Creation

The Basics of Multimedia Learning: Key Principles
The Basic Principles of Content Structuring
The Basic Aspects of Content Organization and Their Essence
The Basic Approaches to Teaching and Disseminating Knowledge
How Reliable Are Richard Meyer's Principles?
The Reasons for Criticism of the Principles Proposed by Meyer

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We've already covered in detail how Richard Mayer, an American psychologist and professor, developed a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, drawing on a vast array of scientific theories, research, and practical observations, including his own. His work resulted in the formulation of specific principles aimed at creating educational material that integrates various formats—text, images, sound, and animation. This type of educational content, which is focused on a variety of ways of perceiving information, such as reading, listening, and viewing, is called multimedia.

For example, a multimedia online course, where a student listens to a lecture from their instructor and simultaneously watches a presentation containing textual key ideas, as well as static and animated images.

Richard Mayer formulated his principles with the aim of creating content that facilitates the process of students perceiving and remembering new information. It is important to note that these principles do not concern the development of the educational program itself, but are aimed at "packaging" and presenting an already completed program as multimedia content.

In this article, we will analyze the following topic:

To effectively combine images, oral explanations, and textual information in an online course, several key aspects should be considered. First, visual materials should complement and enhance oral explanations, not compete with them. Pictures, graphs, and diagrams can better illustrate complex concepts, so they should be used when certain ideas need to be emphasized.
Secondly, text cues can serve as a useful supplement to oral communication, especially when introducing easily remembered terms or important facts. These can be presented in the form of short notes or bullet points, which can help students retain the material better.
Furthermore, it's important to consider the sequence of information delivery. Begin with a verbal explanation supported by visuals, and then provide textual materials for independent study. This will create a harmonious experience of the course, where each element serves its purpose, contributing to a deeper understanding of the topic.
Thus, the correct combination of these three formats can significantly improve the quality of training and facilitate the knowledge acquisition process for course participants.
The basic principles of content organization can be summarized in several key aspects: logical structure, ease of navigation, sequence of presentation, relevance of information, and an attractive visual format. These elements help users easily find the necessary materials and better perceive the presented content.
The principles of knowledge transfer encompass the main approaches and methods used to effectively exchange information and skills between people. These principles include aspects such as clarity of presentation, adaptation of material to the audience's level of comprehension, the use of various formats and teaching methods, and the active involvement of listeners in the process. An important element is creating an environment that promotes open dialogue and exchange of opinions, which allows for deepening understanding and consolidating what has been learned.
Should all these principles be taken at face value, and what are the grounds for their criticism?

The editors would like to thank Elena Tikhomirova, CEO of the eLearning Center and author of the Live Learning blog, and Mikhail Osipov, author of the Online Learning Laboratory channel and the 3 Elements presentation course, for their support in preparing this article.

The Basics of Multimedia Learning: Key Principles

As a general reminder, the concept of multimedia learning is based on other theoretical approaches.

Cognitive load means avoiding overloading the student's working memory with an excess of data. Otherwise, the material being learned will be poorly remembered.
Dual coding is based on the idea that adding visual elements is helpful for more effective perception and retention of verbal information. This involves using two types of representation—verbal and visual—to better assimilate the information.

Initially, the theory contained 12 basic principles. However, after the publication of the first edition of the book "Multimedia Learning," research on this topic did not cease. As a result, in later versions of the work, Richard Mayer and his team introduced three additional principles, increasing their total to 15.

According to Mikhail Osipov, the principles can be roughly classified into two groups: those related to content organization and those related to knowledge transfer. Below, we will consider these groups in detail. Some of these principles are accompanied by illustrations with examples created by Mikhail Osipov in collaboration with Elena Tikhomirova's eLearning Center.

Basic Principles of Content Structuring

This section presents nine key principles that help effectively combine various content formats and provide basic design guidelines. Although these principles are widely used today, it should be remembered that their original purpose was related to the creation of multimedia slides for asynchronous online courses developed by Richard Meier. These courses require viewing of recorded materials.

Therefore, the most effective way to demonstrate their use is to present examples on educational presentation slides. When applying these principles to other multimedia learning resources, however, it is important to carefully consider whether a particular principle will meet your objectives.

The basic idea is that learning is more effective when learning materials do not contain anything that is not related to the main topic. This includes redundant text, unnecessary images, and superfluous sounds.

According to the principle of coherence, educational materials should include only those elements that contribute to the achievement of learning objectives. Any unnecessary information and redundant details that may distract attention should be eliminated. Otherwise, they can lead to excessive cognitive load, distracting a person from completing the learning tasks.

Suppose you intend to include several images in your presentation. It is important to ask yourself several questions: “Do these images actually contribute to a better understanding of the topic? Do they have practical value or are they purely for decoration?” If you're unsure of the answer or realize the image isn't educational, it's likely unnecessary and should be discarded. A similar caveat applies to graphic elements, complex visuals, and unnecessary sound effects. The same can be said for the text: examine it carefully to ensure there aren't any unnecessary details that don't contribute to the main idea, or any tidbits added merely for entertainment value. Anything unnecessary or distracting should be excluded.

An example of slide design with and without regard to the principle of consistency. The left slide contains unnecessary elements: bulleted lists (with various marker icons) and illustrations that can distract from the key information. The right slide shows only the key information on the topic: it is acceptable to use it provided the speaker or teacher explains each point or offers additional description. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media

The point is that the learning process becomes more productive if the educational material emphasizes key points and provides landmarks that facilitate the understanding of the structure of the information.

On the screen or slide, it is necessary to highlight for students those points that require special attention. For example, you can use arrows to indicate main ideas, and emphasize the central idea with a different font, color, or other means. During an oral explanation, important points can be emphasized by pauses, changes in intonation, or direct instructions, such as "Pay attention to this fact; we'll come back to it later!"

Example of slide design based on the signaling principle From the Skillbox course "Web Design from Scratch to Pro"Image: Skillbox

The basic idea is that people perceive information more effectively when it appeals to two sensory channels—visual and auditory. This means that verbal information is more easily remembered if it is accompanied by visual elements, such as images or animations.

Have you heard of dual coding theory? According to this concept, simultaneously perceiving information through visual and auditory channels doesn't overload working memory, but rather promotes better retention. However, this technique is only effective for images, not text, as visual information is much easier to remember than verbal information. The optimal way to convey educational material is to combine verbal explanation with visual elements such as illustrations, infographics, photographs, and animation.

It's important to remember that illustrations don't just refer to any images, but only those that have educational value. The rest are unnecessary.

Research has shown that participants who learned through animated e-learning courses accompanied by sequential oral explanation demonstrated higher information retention than those who studied the material only through animation, but without audio commentary, relying on text-based reading materials.

According to research, the most effective way to convey information is a combination of visual elements and oral explanation. Unlike a format that includes visuals, oral explanation, and text, a combined approach without text ensures higher quality assimilation of the material.

In other words, it is inappropriate to present the same information in a presentation simultaneously in text format, in the form of images, and through voice-over. In this combination of media formats, text is redundant, since, according to the principle of modality, the most effective way to convey information is an oral explanation supplemented by visual elements.

The point is that the processes of reading and listening to information are not entirely compatible. When people read, they often silently repeat the text, which engages not only visual but also auditory perception. If a voiceover is present during this process, the reader experiences excessive strain on their auditory system. In this case, the reading speed may exceed the speaker's speech rate, and the internal voice may begin to conflict with the speaker's voice, making it difficult to comprehend the information. Of course, this doesn't mean completely eliminating text on the screen. However, it should be minimized, especially when the main information is conveyed orally. For example, you can briefly outline the main points and cite your sources.

An example of a slide design without (left) and with (right) the principle of redundancy. The text on the slide on the left is redundant if the teacher comments on the map out loud. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 elements" / Skillbox Media.

An example of slide design taking into account and without taking into account the principle of redundancy. The text highlighted in red on the first slide is redundant. These are the conclusions that follow from the diagram on the right, and it is better to speak them out loud so that the listener can simultaneously study the diagram. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

Research shows that information retention is more productive when both textual materials and visual elements are used, compared to learning based solely on words.

We have come to understand that the most effective way to convey educational information is a combination of verbal presentation and visual materials. However, if a textual explanation must be used, it also requires the presence of illustrations, rather than leaving it in its pure form. This statement is consistent with dual coding theory.

It is important to note that images should be used not only for visual appeal, but also to effectively convey meaning. Graphic elements can clearly illustrate the content of a text, significantly facilitating the assimilation of new information. This approach helps students form not only verbal but also visual mental images. This, in turn, contributes to better memorization.

An example of slide design with and without taking into account the multimedia principle. The first version contains only text and a random image, while the second version includes an image that figuratively illustrates the content of the text. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

Research shows that students perceive material more effectively when images and corresponding captions are located in close proximity to each other, rather than separated by distance.

When an image and its caption are located next to each other on a slide, viewers do not need to make additional efforts to connect the meaning of the image with the text. This logical arrangement of information facilitates perception and reduces mental strain.

This principle applies not only to images and captions, but also to other interrelated elements that should be located in close proximity to each other. For example, this may concern tasks and instructions for completing them, as well as questions and corresponding answers.

Examples of slides with incorrect and correct application of the principle of spatial relationship. On the first slide, the captions are located far from the elements they refer to, requiring additional effort for a person to associate them. The second slide has the correct placement, making it more convenient for readers or viewers. Image: Mikhail Osipov's course on creating educational presentations "3 Elements" / Skillbox Media.

Research shows that students perceive information more effectively when visual materials are accompanied by verbal explanations simultaneously, rather than one at a time.

When a teacher conducts a physical experiment in class, they typically provide live commentary on all actions. A similar approach is used in online courses. This is essential for activating both visual and auditory perception, allowing information to be conveyed simultaneously through both words and images. If you tell something first and then demonstrate it (or vice versa), students will perceive and process new information less effectively.

According to research, information is absorbed more effectively when multimedia content is divided into separate segments, each adapted to a specific pacing, rather than when it is presented as a single, continuous stream.

Simply put, dividing educational material into small, easily digestible chunks will help reduce mental strain and make the memorization process easier for your audience.

You should also give students the opportunity to control the pace of the lesson, especially in an asynchronous format. This can be achieved by adding a speed slider and a "next" button to move to the next slide or section. In his research, Richard Mayer found that when students are given the opportunity to self-regulate their learning speed, their performance on memory tests improves significantly.

An example of slide design with and without segmentation. The first slide presents the content of the first section of the course without breaking it down into segments (subtopics). The second slide breaks it down into smaller subtopics. Image: eLearning center / Skillbox Media

Research shows that multimedia content is more effectively retained when viewers or listeners already have knowledge of the terms and concepts used in the messages.

A basic approach to pre-training is to provide students with basic instructions and a glossary of terms before delving into a topic, especially if they are new to the topic and it contains many specific aspects. Here are some steps you can take:

Prepare a starter guide or conduct an orientation session covering the key concepts of the course;
Provide definitions of key terms in the form of a glossary.

Example of the principle of advance preparation: slide With a glossary from the Skillbox course "Web Design from Scratch to PRO"Illustration: Skillbox

Key Aspects of Content Organization and Their Essence

Elena Tikhomirova emphasizes that the fundamental concept of design according to Mayer is the competent combination of various media elements. This includes the ability to correctly combine sound with text, images with text, as well as combine images, text, and sound.

It is important to note that this is not simply about the number of illustrations, audio files, and text material in the course. The key is their harmonious interaction - when text and images are displayed on the screen simultaneously, an audio explanation is heard, or all of these elements are combined into one.

There are three main ways to convey information in online learning:

visual materials (graphic images, illustrations, animation elements);
an audio file with a verbal explanation of the topic under consideration;
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According to Mayer's research, it is most effective to present new information using a combination of two formats, rather than using one or all three at once. It is important to combine verbal and visual presentation of information, as this promotes better perception and memorization of the material.

The optimal solution is to combine visual materials with audio recordings, which implies the presence of images accompanied by synchronous oral commentary.
Combining text descriptions with images is also possible, but this strategy is less effective.
Combining text explanations with oral audio recordings is not the optimal option. Simply put, you should not voice what is already present in text format on the presentation slides.

The second important aspect of the principles is that all components of multimedia learning should be organized in such a way as not to overload the learner cognitively. In other words, they should be arranged sequentially, interconnected, with a minimum of unnecessary information, and be easy to perceive. Mayer explained in detail what is meant by the terms "logical," "convenient," and other similar concepts.

Basic Approaches to Teaching and Knowledge Dissemination

This section includes six key principles. These principles clarify what should be considered when creating materials for both synchronous and asynchronous learning. They cover not only presentation slides but also more modern technologies. However, it is worth noting that technological advances occur much faster than the experimental base for their evaluation is formed.

There is an opinion that information is perceived more effectively when it is presented in an informal, conversational tone.

First of all, the use of officialese and specialized terminology hinders the perception of information, since it increases mental strain. A person needs time to first "translate" the received information into more understandable and accessible language. Therefore, it's important to present the topic in a simple, conversational manner.

Secondly, a relaxed atmosphere allows each student to feel like the teacher is speaking specifically to them. This, in turn, encourages them to listen more attentively and absorb the information.

Mikhail Osipov, explaining this principle at Skillbox Media, notes that it applies to all forms of interaction with students. This applies not only to teachers but also to mentors, curators, and anyone else who interacts with students.

The basic idea is that information is more effectively perceived when it is presented in a human voice rather than an artificial one.

A live human voice has the ability to convey emotion and the essence of information more effectively than a computerized one. In this context, the artificial voice often used by bloggers on the TikTok platform comes to mind. Mikhail Osipov, analyzing this aspect for Skillbox Media, cites research by Richard Meyer, who argues that even a voice created by artificial intelligence and as close to a human voice as possible is perceived less effectively than a real human voice.

The main idea is that people do not need to watch the teacher's image on the screen to effectively perceive information.

Richard Meyer advises avoiding the use of a "talking head" in asynchronous courses. Instead, he argues that presentations containing illustrations and text will be more than sufficient.

The speaker's image is necessary for the following purposes:

to show the teacher's active involvement in curriculum development;
to express the teacher's individual point of view on the issue being discussed in the lesson;
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Creating an emotional emphasis requires a special approach to presenting information. This can be achieved through the use of expressive words, metaphors, and an emphasis on the feelings and experiences that may accompany the events described. It is important that the text evokes certain emotions in the reader, making them think, or empathize. For example, you can use more vivid imagery, tell personal stories, or share deep reflections to make the material more vivid and memorable.

How reliable are Richard Meier's principles?

At first glance, some principles may seem overly simple and even obvious. However, when Italian researchers conducted a study on the role of illustrations in the educational process and conducted a series of experiments, it became clear that participants unfamiliar with Mayer's theory intuitively came to the same conclusions. This fact explains the widespread popularity of the theory and principles proposed by the scientist: they are based on scientific evidence and are not arbitrary statements.

Unlike a number of well-known, but less effective in practice, educational approaches, the theory of multimedia learning is based on solid scientific principles and rigorous research. Richard Mayer, together with a team of researchers, conducted over 200 experiments aimed at testing each of the proposed principles, with many of them repeated several times to increase the reliability of the results.

Of course, over the years, this theory has been studied by other scientists, not only Mayer himself, including in Russia. One of the most recent and significant examples is the work of Australian specialists who conducted a meta-meta-analysis. During the study, they analyzed 29 systematic reviews that summarized the findings of numerous other scientific articles. Ultimately, the materials analyzed included data from 1,189 experiments involving over 79,000 participants.

"Most design principles based on multimedia learning theory have strong support in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Furthermore, we also found support for the fundamental assumptions of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning: students learn information more effectively when it is presented through a combination of visual and audiovisual materials, provided that measures are taken to minimize the risk of cognitive overload," the researchers concluded.

As a result of a detailed analysis and collection of empirical data, the concept of multimedia learning has become a key concept in modern instructional design. The principles proposed by Mayer are used not only in the development of slide courses and teaching aids, but also in a wide variety of areas: from creating criteria for assessing the quality of visual content in textbooks to developing resources for digital libraries.

Reasons for Criticism of the Principles Proposed by Mayer

Despite the extensive evidence, scientists highlight several shortcomings in this area. In particular, Australian educator and psychologist John Sweller, known for his cognitive load theory, expressed criticism of Richard Mayer's theory. He questioned the main assumption on which Mayer's work is based - that the parallel use of visual and auditory channels of information perception is effective. Sweller and his colleagues argued that this approach, on the contrary, can reduce a person's cognitive resources.

Among other shortcomings of this theory, researchers note that it ignores both students' motivation and their individual abilities to perceive information. Lack of motivation or even simple stress can significantly reduce the effectiveness of working memory. At the same time, many elements of educational courses that may seem redundant and distracting from the principle of coherence actually play a vital role in engaging students and maintaining their attention. Furthermore, individual differences also play a role: some students can easily comprehend long lectures, while others lose concentration after just a few minutes. Educational experts believe that the following aspects must also be considered when implementing multimedia learning principles: The effectiveness of these principles decreases with increasing experience and knowledge among the audience. Mikhail Osipov emphasizes that all of Mayer's proposed principles are aimed at students with limited learning experience. If we try to use these approaches with people with more significant educational background, the results will be significantly less impressive.

In other words, people with significant learning experience are able to independently extract important information, even if this involves reading lengthy and difficult texts or analyzing information presented in difficult formats. It is doubtful that reducing cognitive load will significantly improve their learning ability if it is already at a high level.

The methods proposed by Mayer are not universal and may not be suitable for everyone.

Elena Tikhomirova notes that, despite the fact that these principles have been confirmed through practical application, their use cannot be isolated from the educational environment. The effect of the segmentation principle will be less noticeable if the material is initially simple and presented slowly. Furthermore, the principle of redundancy will not have the desired effect on the visually impaired. In other words, when implementing multimedia learning principles, it is important to consider both the characteristics of learners and the specifics of the learning material.

Mayer's principles are not the only condition for achieving a high level of design.

Although the principles outlined are quite clear and precise, they cannot be considered exhaustive. "For example, Richard Meyer does not emphasize the importance of color, which is a serious omission, since the visual design of electronic learning materials plays a key role. No principles will save the situation if the text is written in light green on a bright yellow background. Such material is simply impossible to perceive. The same problem applies to low-quality images or videos, so it is important to pay attention to overall visual neatness and cleanliness," Elena Tikhomirova explains.

The main aspect that experts point out is that Richard Meyer's principles, although valuable, are recommendations, not strict prescriptions. While these principles can be a useful guide, the target audience, expected learning outcomes, and available technical resources are paramount when creating any course or learning material.