How the first university appeared in Russia and where it went later — the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy

Contents:

• What kind of school was the basis of the academy
• How the academy came into being
• What and who was taught at the academy
• Who headed the academy
• How classes were held at the academy
• Why and how the decline of the academy occurred

What School Was the Foundation of the Academy

In the 17th century, the Russian Tsardom saw a significant growth in book publishing, primarily in the field of ecclesiastical literature. This process was under the control of the Church, which published such books as the Gospels, Psalters, and collections of the teachings of the Holy Fathers. An important event was the publication of Vasily Burtsov's primer in 1634, which could be purchased for one to three kilograms of rye flour. A grammar by the Kyiv spiritual writer Meletius Smotritsky was also published, from which even Lomonosov learned Church Slavonic. By the end of the 17th century, a primer by Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery, and a practical guide to numeracy appeared. These publications became important elements of the educational process and cultural development of the time, promoting the spread of literacy and knowledge among the population.

The second half of the 17th century was a landmark period for the Moscow Printing House, which published 300,000 copies of primers and a wealth of educational literature, both religious and secular. The books sold out incredibly quickly, with some editions disappearing from the shelves in a matter of days. Successful book publishing required qualified personnel: readers, scribes, and proofreaders who corrected errors in the texts. To train such specialists, a school was opened at the Printing House in 1681. This school taught Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Teaching was conducted by the monk Timofey, as well as the Greeks Manuel Levendatov and Joachim. Initially, the school had 30 students. This step contributed to the improvement of the quality of book publishing and the development of literacy among the population.

The history of education in Russia includes many significant milestones. One of these was the opening of a school at the Zaikonospassky Monastery in 1665, where, under the direction of Simeon Polotsky, grammar and Latin were taught to clerks, the lower administrative officials of the Prikaz of Secret Affairs. At this time, a Greek-Latin school also existed at the Chudov Monastery, which played an important role in the educational system of the time. Furthermore, earlier, during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, okolnichy Fyodor Rtishchev invited approximately 30 learned monks from Kyiv to the St. Andrew's Monastery he founded. At this monastery, young noblemen, including Rtishchev himself, studied Greek and Latin, rhetoric, and philosophy. These educational initiatives became the basis for the formation of the intelligentsia and the development of science in Russia.

The Typographic School at the Printing Yard became the basis for the creation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. This school played a key role in the development of education and culture, ensuring the training of qualified specialists in the fields of typography and the humanities. The influence of the Typographic School on the Academy was an important stage in the formation of an educational system that contributed to the dissemination of knowledge and the development of literature in the region.

At that time, educated personnel were in demand by both the Church and government institutions. However, the process of creating a higher education institution proved complex and controversial. It was accompanied by an intense struggle between supporters and opponents of higher education, as well as debates about which experience – Western European or Greek – should be used to base educational programs. These discussions reflected not only cultural and educational preferences but also the desire to create a system capable of training qualified specialists who met the demands of the time.

The rivalry between Latinists and Graecophiles had a significant impact on changes in the structure and name of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Initially, the institution was called the Hellenic-Greek Academy, also known as the Hellenic-Greek Scholae or Spassky Schools. From 1701 to 1775, the academy was known as the Slavic-Latin Academy, and only then received its current name—the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. These changes reflect the cultural and educational trends of the time, as well as the struggle between different linguistic and cultural trends in Russia.

How the Academy Came to Be

The academy's origins were laid by the document "privilege" drawn up by Simeon Polotsky. This document drew heavily on the experience of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, where Polotsky himself studied and taught. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was founded in the early 17th century by the Ukrainian public figure and Kyiv Metropolitan Petro Mohyla, who was educated in Holland and France. He also drew inspiration from the experience of the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, which, in turn, inherited the traditions of the oldest European universities in Bologna and Paris. Thus, the academy became an important center of education and culture, fostering the development of intellectual life in the region.

The legacy of Polotsky's design for the Moscow Academy remains evident to this day. This academy was intended to be an all-class institution of higher learning, offering free tuition, stipends for students, and salaries for faculty. Students were expected to study not only languages ​​such as Slavic, Greek, Latin, and Polish, but also the basic courses of European universities, including the "seven liberal arts"—the trivium and quadrivium—as well as advanced courses in theology. Like Western European universities, the academy was envisioned as an autonomous institution, with students and faculty reporting solely to the rector and patriarch, according to the "Academic Rank." An important task for the academy was to oversee other educational institutions and tutors, as well as censor books from the perspective of the Orthodox Church. It was also tasked with persuading and punishing apostates from the Orthodox faith, as well as screening foreigners for trustworthiness and suitability for service or study. Thus, the Moscow Academy held strategic importance in the educational and spiritual spheres, providing oversight and support for Orthodox education.

The Academy was conceived as a pre-classical university, typical of the Middle Ages and early modern period, with the powers of a state agency and the Inquisition. Its primary purpose was to train specialists for ecclesiastical and state service, including diplomats, translators, editors, and teachers. This structure would ensure the necessary qualifications and competencies to perform important functions in society.

Polotsky was unable to realize his plan, as he died in 1680. His work was continued by his student Sylvester Medvedev (1641–1691), who was a corrector, book keeper, and court poet. Medvedev edited the privilege drawn up by Polotsky and achieved its approval by Tsar Feodor in 1682.

The establishment of the academy was delayed, in part due to disputes over the language of instruction: Latin or Ancient Greek. These discussions reflected not only the preferences of scholars but also the cultural and historical aspects of education at the time. The choice of language of instruction had a significant impact on the development of the academic environment and the perception of knowledge in society.

Only three years later did the Grecophile Patriarch Joachim give his blessing to the opening of the school. Although the initial idea for the academy belonged to Latinists, it was headed by Greeks – the brothers Ioanniky and Sophrony Likhud. They had received their education in Venice and degrees in Padua, possessing encyclopedic knowledge. Patriarch Dionysius of Constantinople recommended them to Joachim as highly qualified teachers for the organization of a higher school.

Due to lengthy delays in Poland, where the brothers were forced to engage in protracted disputes with the Jesuits, the Likhuds arrived in Moscow only in 1685. That same year, an academy was founded at the Epiphany Monastery, where the printing school also moved. Initially, the Likhuds managed to attract only six students from this school. Their names are preserved in historical records: Alexei Kirillov (Barsov), Nikolai Semenov, Fyodor Polikarpov, Fedot Ageyev, Joseph Afanasyev, and Job, the Chudovsky monk. These students became the first students of the new academy, marking the beginning of the development of educational traditions in Russia. Two years after its founding, the academy was transferred to a separate three-story building at the Monastery of the All-Merciful Savior, by order of Patriarch Joachim of Moscow and All Rus'. This monastery, better known as Zaikonospassky, received its name from its location behind the icon row. The years 1685 and 1687 are considered by researchers to be key dates in the history of the academy's founding.

What and Who Was Taught at the Academy

After the opening of the academy, Greek language instruction began, followed by a course in rhetoric. The teachers independently developed textbooks in most disciplines, drawing on materials from leading European universities. Surviving manuscripts contain their works, such as Rhetoric, Logic, Psychology, and Physics. These books are based on the works of Aristotle and his commentators, reflecting the spirit of late scholasticism and incorporating data from Western philosophy of the time. This allows us to understand how the academy contributed to the development of educational traditions and the deepening of knowledge in various fields.

The curriculum included the works of such thinkers as Democritus, Campanella, and Leibniz, as well as a variety of literary and theological texts. Thus, the Likhuds are deservedly considered the founders of the domestic fund of educational philosophical literature. Their contribution to the development of philosophical education in Russia is invaluable and continues to influence modern curricula.

Despite their achievements, the Likhudov brothers soon came under criticism for their excessive use of Latin. The main complaint, raised by Patriarch Dositheus of Jerusalem, was that they were preoccupied with physics and philosophy, instead of focusing on other subjects. In 1694, the brothers were suspended from teaching, and Latin was excluded from the curriculum.

The Academy found itself on the verge of closure. Funding for its activities was significantly reduced, which led to a reduction in the number of subjects taught. Instead of experienced teachers like Likhudov, classes were taught by their students Fyodor Polikarpov and Nikolai Semyonov, who had not completed the full course of study. This created serious problems for the educational process and the quality of instruction.

Despite these difficulties, the Academy demonstrated stable growth and development. In 1685, it began with only six students, but by 1689, their number had increased to 163. During the 18th century, the number of students fluctuated: in 1738, there were 460, then in 1750, the number of students dropped to 200, and by the 1790s, it had risen again, reaching 900. This dynamic growth testifies to the academy's continuous efforts to provide a high-quality education and attract new students.

The academy initially accepted people of various classes and statuses. Children of commoners, merchants, priests, and members of the nobility studied here. Despite this, class distinctions remained. For example, the prince's children received a stipend of one gold piece (two rubles) per month, while children from the poor and lower classes, known as "mean," received only half a ruble, or fifty silver kopecks. A striking example is Mikhail Lomonosov, who studied at the academy from 1731 to 1735 and lived on one altyn (three kopecks) per day. He spent one denya (half a kopeck) on bread and kvass, and used the remainder for paper, shoes, and other essentials.

The reforms of Peter the Great significantly revitalized the Russian academic system. In his decrees of 1701 and 1706, the first Russian emperor confirmed the academy's status, granting it state privileges. Teachers from Kyiv and Lvov, who had experience working in European scientific schools, were invited to the educational institution. Students also came from these areas, which facilitated the exchange of knowledge. During this period, Latin, which at that time was the international language of science, was reintroduced to the academy. Greek was excluded from the curriculum, but in 1726 it was reintroduced into the academy thanks to the establishment of the Greek school of Sophronius Likhud, opened in 1707. Greek was finally included in the academy curriculum only in 1738. These changes became the basis for the formation of academic education in Russia and contributed to the integration of Russian science into the European context.

Who headed the academy

The positions of rector and protector of the academy were established under Peter I. The rector simultaneously served as abbot of the Zaikonospassky Monastery and supervised the behavior of students. The protector was responsible for the organization of teaching. Both also performed additional functions for the academy, including participating in debates with apostates and reviewing and translating books. The establishment of these positions contributed to the strengthening of the educational system and the maintenance of academic standards in Russia.

The first protector of the educational institution was Metropolitan Stefan (Yavorsky), and the rectorate was headed by Palady Rogovsky. Rogovsky was educated at the Likhudov Epiphany School, but after two years, he left without permission for 11 years abroad for advanced studies. He joined the Uniates, a movement aimed at uniting the Orthodox and Catholic churches, and studied at Jesuit schools, as well as at the Higher Greek-Uniate College in Rome. He became the first doctor of philosophy and theology from Russia. Upon returning home, Rogovsky wrote a number of "confessional" works in which he critically analyzed Roman teaching and exposed its inaccuracies.

From the very beginning, the tsar's decrees on the academy used the terms "Academy" and "students," along with the vague concepts of "school" and "student." Gradually, "academy" and "students" supplanted the former terms. In documents of the Patriarchal Treasury Prikaz, teachers were referred to as "teachers of advanced sciences." It is interesting to note that abroad, where the Moscow Academy quickly became known, teachers were called "professors." This contributed to the institution's elevated status abroad much more quickly than within Russia. The Academy gained international recognition, underscoring its importance in the educational system of the time. Peter I confirmed the Academy's rights of university autonomy, an important step in the development of the educational system in Russia. In a decree of 1706, the Tsar prescribed that all matters, including legal ones, concerning students of the "Slavonic-Latin schools in the Spasov Monastery" should be reviewed by Metropolitan Stefan of Ryazan and Murom. This decision emphasized the importance of church authority in educational processes and contributed to the strengthening of the autonomy of educational institutions.

In 1715–1716, the academy experienced a brief period of student self-government, when students were able to elect procurators to protect their rights. However, this institution was soon abolished, and the topic of student self-government was no longer discussed. This moment in the academy's history became a significant milestone, highlighting the limitations placed on student initiative in the educational process.

The sweeping reforms of the time of Peter the Great led to significant changes in the departmental subordination of the academy. In 1718, the academy came completely under the control of the Monastic Prikaz, which later became known as the College of Economy, and then came under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod. The position of protector was effectively abolished, and the academy began to be periodically inspected by auditors, which limited its autonomy. In the second quarter of the 18th century, the academy was awarded the honorary title of "Imperial". During the reign of Peter I's successors, the academy's status remained virtually unchanged, demonstrating the stability of its position in the educational and scientific system of the time.

In 1728, admission to the academy for the children of soldiers and peasants was closed, forcing Mikhail Lomonosov to conceal his true origins. He passed himself off as the son of a Kholmogory nobleman, claiming to have lost his documents en route. Interestingly, among the 259 students at the academy, he became the only "Russian nobleman", albeit under a fictitious name. Representatives of this class at that time showed no interest in an academic career, which emphasizes the uniqueness of Lomonosov's situation.

How were classes conducted at the academy?

Training at the academy began after an entrance interview, and usually began at the age of 11-12. However, there were cases when people came to the academy at the age of 6-7, and even at 28. The curriculum consisted of three levels, which had to be completed sequentially. Each level was divided into separate "schools", which allowed for deepening knowledge and skills in certain areas. This approach ensured the individual progress of each student and contributed to more effective assimilation of the material.

• lower - "fara", "infima", "grammar", "sintaksima": Slavic and Greek grammar, Latin;
• middle - rhetoric and poetics (the course of the latter included the composition of poems, "orations", dialogues and scenes in Latin - students were required to speak it even among themselves for better understanding);
• higher - philosophy and theology. Students at this level were called students; they swore an oath of allegiance to the king, as was customary in European universities.

A full course in philosophy covers various aspects of knowledge, including physics, which is viewed as natural wisdom, ethics, which represents moral wisdom, and metaphysics, which studies speculative concepts. For those who do not have a basic education, there is a preparatory school for mastering fundamental knowledge.

The most talented students completed the full course of study in 12–13 years, while less prepared students could take up to 20 years. This approach was not unique to Russia; medieval European universities also observed long periods of study.

Slow progress in studies usually did not result in expulsion, while misbehavior could be punished. Early promotion to the next grade in the middle of the school year was common, especially in elementary schools. A striking example is Pyotr Levshin, who became Metropolitan Platon of Moscow, who completed the entire curriculum in just six years. This was made possible by his outstanding personal qualities: having skipped a Greek course, Levshin received a Greek grammar in Latin from a friend, copied it out, and taught himself the language, since he was unable to buy one. He later taught at the academy, putting his knowledge of Greek to good use. Mikhail Lomonosov, who became an outstanding scholar of his time, also quickly mastered the academic disciplines.

In 1770, the academy decided to expel 46 students due to poor attendance, frequent unexcused absences, bad behavior, and health problems. One such student, 14-year-old Mitrofan Vlasov, had spent eight years in first grade, indicating his poor academic performance. Another student, Alexei Nazarov, was expelled with the following notation on his record: "On July 23 of this year, he was sent away by the police, allegedly for participating in a fight with a guard; however, upon questioning in the office, he did not admit to this." These cases highlight that not all students were able to meet the academy's requirements.

Surprisingly, it was revealed during this period that one of the students, Vasily Chebyshev, was not actually Chebyshev, but the son of a palace peasant, Ivan Pavlov. Vasily himself had no memory of this, having been sent to the academy at an early age. One of the constant problems at the institution was student runaways. In 1718, it was ordered "to identify and send those who left their studies to those schools from the Monastic Prikaz with punishment." Such measures underscore the serious approach to education and discipline at academic institutions of the time.

Students were promoted to the next educational level based on their exam results: oral examinations were conducted in elementary schools, written essays in middle schools, and public debates in high schools. Academic achievements were rewarded with "worthy rewards"—the awarding of "respectable titles in accordance with their intellectual abilities." Upon completion of their studies, certificates were issued that could be presented to the tsar, and, in accordance with the monarch's decrees, students could be assigned to various positions. Furthermore, the monarch could commission the academy to translate books, and these assignments were completed by the best students. Classes began in September and lasted almost the entire year. The only exception was vacations, which ran from July 15 to August 31. During this period, students could rest and recuperate before the new academic year.

Be sure to read the additional materials.

Summer holidays are the longest compared to Winter holidays are common, and there are several reasons for this. Firstly, the summer period coincides with warm weather, which allows children and teenagers to spend time actively outdoors, playing sports, enjoying nature, and traveling. Secondly, in most countries, the school year ends in late spring, which allows for a long vacation before the new academic cycle begins.

Winter holidays are typically shorter, as they include only a few weeks of rest in December and January, which are often timed to coincide with holidays. Furthermore, the winter months limit opportunities for outdoor activities due to the cold weather. Thus, summer holidays provide children with more time for rest and entertainment, making them the most anticipated and desired.

Lectures lasted three hours a day, providing senior students with the opportunity to actively participate in the education of their younger peers. Senior students not only assisted their less experienced peers but also served as role models. This practice was consistent with traditional academic policy and contributed to the development of pedagogical skills among students, which could lead to future teaching careers. Thus, mutual assistance and mentoring created an effective educational environment, facilitating the development of both junior and senior students.

Some students went on missions abroad to study languages ​​such as Turkish, Arabic, and Persian, as well as to master literary studies in France. Interestingly, these assignments were often perceived as low-prestige and were often reserved for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, it was common to send the best students on expeditions and foreign missions. For example, in 1716, a group of academy students went to Prague to translate books. In 1725, as part of the Beijing Mission, students Luka Voeikov, Fyodor Tretyakov, and Ivan Shestopalov traveled to China with Ambassador Savva Raguzinsky. In 1733, 12 students were sent on the Kamchatka expedition. This experience not only facilitated cultural exchange but also advanced academic knowledge, underscoring the importance of international cooperation in education. Foreign students also attended the academy. In accordance with the 1721 Synod's decision, foreigners were treated equally with domestic students, but only on condition that they swore an oath of allegiance to the Russian Emperor. However, refusing to swear such an oath only deprived them of the right to receive a salary (i.e., a stipend) and did not limit their educational opportunities. Completing the full course at the academy was not mandatory, as even students who did not complete their studies were in high demand among various organizations and departments. Therefore, only a few reached the highest levels of theology. The largest number of students went to the school at the Moscow Hospital, where knowledge of Latin was particularly valued. Between 1719 and 1722, 108 people transferred from the academy to the hospital. In 1722, a veritable "war" for students broke out between the hospital and the academy, underscoring the importance of education and professional training in this field.

The rector expressed dissatisfaction: "Students were admitted to the aforementioned schools, and among these students, over the years, some were called to the sovereign's service. Currently, students also receive a salary from His Great Sovereign without completing their studies, and continue to remain unbeknownst to their superiors, enrolling in various ranks." It is noteworthy that the Synod then decided in favor of the hospital.

Some students, after completing the first two stages of the academy, transferred to other professional higher education institutions, such as the Navigation School and the Medical School, as well as the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, founded in 1725. Many of the graduates continued their education at renowned European universities. This testifies to the high level of training and the wide opportunities that opened up to students striving for further development and professional growth.

Why and how the decline of the academy occurred

The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy played a key role in the formation of the higher education system in Russia and long remained the main center for training the educated elite. The outstanding scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, who initiated the creation of Moscow University, graduated from the walls of this academy. The academy's alumni also included other significant figures who had a significant influence on Russian culture in the 18th and 19th centuries. These included the poet Vasily Trediakovsky, the diplomat Antiochus Kantemir, the mathematician Leonty Magnitsky, the Kamchatka explorer Stepan Krasheninnikov, the industrialist Dmitry Vinogradov, and the founder of the first permanent theater in Russia, Fyodor Volkov. These figures not only advanced science and art but also contributed to the development of Russian culture as a whole.

The medieval principles on which the academy was largely based quickly lost their relevance. Peter the Great realized that it was impossible to effectively combine secular and religious education. The state needed specialists with knowledge in specific applied sciences, not simply educated individuals. As a result, professional-class education began to dominate, and academies increasingly turned into higher theological educational institutions.

Since the 1740s, members of the clergy were required to send their children to the academy. By that time, peasant children no longer had access to educational institutions. Children from the common classes preferred the Navigation School and the Medical School, which offered more practical professions. The academy at that time did not enjoy the same popularity as these institutions, which was due to the specifics of the educational programs and career prospects.

In 1755, the first university in Russia was founded in Moscow, which marked the beginning of a long process of dividing powers between the university and the academy. In 1775, a new charter for the academy was adopted, according to which, as envisaged by Catherine II, it was transformed into an educational institution focused exclusively on the training of educated clergy. This period in the history of education in Russia marked an important step toward the formation of a system of higher education, which subsequently had a significant impact on the development of science and culture in the country.

In 1775, Metropolitan Platon (Levshin), who took over as director of the academy, made efforts to expand the educational program. The curriculum was significantly enriched with new subjects, including not only theological disciplines but also university courses. The new subjects included mathematics, experimental physics, civil and natural history, as well as a brief introduction to medicine and botany. In addition, academy students were required to attend lectures at Moscow University, which contributed to the deepening of their knowledge and preparation for practical work.

As part of the educational reform of Alexander I in 1814, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was transformed into the Moscow Theological Academy, which became an important institution for the training of highly qualified clergy. Initially, only 19 students and four teachers from the previous academy were admitted to the new educational institution. As a result of the occupation of Moscow by Napoleon's army in 1812, many of the academy's buildings were damaged, so the new institution was located in Sergiev Posad, in the Holy Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius. The Moscow Theological Academy continues its work in this historically significant place to this day, playing a key role in the spiritual and educational development of Russia.