How the "parallel ministry of education" operated under the Russian empresses

Contents:

• How the Department of Institutions of Empress Maria appeared and what it did
• How Maria Feodorovna took up issues of upbringing and education
• Which educational institutions were under the care of the Department
• What ideas about education did Maria Feodorovna adhere to

How the Department of Institutions of Empress Maria came into being and what it did

The department was founded in 1854, after the death of Empress Maria Feodorovna, who passed away in 1828. In honor of this outstanding personality, the IV Section of His Imperial Majesty's Chancellery was created. This department was organized with the purpose of managing the many institutions that were under the personal patronage of the Empress during her life. The creation of the IV Section was an important step in the development of the management system and ensuring continuity in matters that were important to Maria Feodorovna.

Educational institutions created for charitable purposes played an important role in society. These institutions, primarily for women but not exclusively, included foundling homes for foundlings and orphans, which became the prototypes of modern orphanages. They also included hospitals and almshouses—shelters for adults, known as widows' houses—where single women in need could receive the assistance they needed. In 1854, the Department oversaw 236 such institutions, and by 1902, their number had grown to over a thousand. These initiatives marked an important step in the development of social assistance and charity in society, helping to improve living conditions for the most vulnerable segments of the population.

In 1909, the Department cared for over 710,000 adults and children. The All-Russian School of Imperial Locum Tenens (VUIM) was the largest charitable organization, operating both under the patronage of the imperial dynasty and throughout Russia. This organization played a vital role in providing social support and assistance to those in need, ensuring access to resources and services for the most vulnerable groups.

After the death of Maria Feodorovna, a tradition emerged according to which VUIM would always be under the leadership of Russian empresses. This agency was headed by the wives of Nicholas I, Alexander II, and Alexander III, emphasizing the importance of women's role in the management of charitable institutions and the social sphere in Russia. This approach contributed to strengthening the ties between the monarchy and society, as well as the development of cultural and social initiatives in the country.

The system of Military Educational Institutions and Institutes of the Ministry of Public Education was managed through various committees and councils created on the model of military educational institutions. The Educational Committee included the Minister of Public Education and the head of the military educational institutions. Their main task was to oversee the educational process and develop curricula and programs. The composition of the Main Council of VUIM and the councils of individual educational institutions was approved by the empresses. At various times, the Department's day-to-day management was handled by a State Secretary or a Chief Manager.

The VUIM schools were organized according to class. According to the 1855 Charter of VUIM Women's Educational Institutions, there were three ranks. The rank level was determined by the nobility of the students, which also influenced the content and programs of study at these educational institutions. Higher ranks offered a more in-depth and varied education, corresponding to the social status of the students.

The VUIM institutions were financed partially or entirely by charitable funds. The main sources of funding included donations from empresses and other members of the imperial family, as well as funds from noble and merchant communities and private individuals. Additionally, the institutions founded by Maria Feodorovna received funding from the treasury, which was provided by special taxes on entertainment events and theaters, as well as a state monopoly on the sale of playing cards. Part of the expenses were also covered by the students, whose fees were paid by their families. Thus, VUIM was an important institution supported by both charitable and state funds, which contributed to its stable functioning and development.

The department had profitable assets at its disposal, including its own enterprises, credit institutions, and apartment buildings. By 1905, VUIM's budget reached more than 128 million rubles. For comparison, in 1913, the budget of the Ministry of Public Education was just under 143 million rubles. Thus, the Office of Empress Maria had stable financial support.

VUIM existed until the revolution of 1917. In March 1917, the Office was abolished, and its educational institutions were transferred to the control of the Ministry of Public Education, which later became the People's Commissariat of Education. This transition became an important stage in the reform of the educational system in Russia in the post-revolutionary period.

How Maria Feodorovna took up issues of upbringing and education

Princess of Württemberg Sophie Maria Dorothea Augusta Louise (1759–1828) was born in Stettin, which at that time was part of Prussia. In the 18th century, many fragmented German states provided brides for the high families of Europe, which emphasized the importance of dynastic marriages in strengthening political alliances. Sofia, like Catherine II, became a symbol of this process, playing a significant role in the international politics of her time. Sofia, who received a high-quality home education, was no exception in her fate: she was married to the heir to the Russian throne, Paul I. Having converted to Orthodoxy under the name Maria Feodorovna in accordance with tradition, she became the wife of the Tsarevich. In this marriage, they had ten children, which is unprecedented for august families in Russia. Maria, like Paul, long remained in the shadow of her mother-in-law, Catherine II. The spouse of the heir lacked influence at court and did not participate in the upbringing of her eldest sons, since this was handled by their grandmother, the Empress. This state of affairs emphasized Maria's limited opportunities in political life and family matters, which increased her dependence on the strong personality of Catherine. After the death of Catherine II and the accession of Paul I to the throne, significant changes took place. On March 12, 1796, the sixth day of his reign, Paul I appointed his wife of 20 years as head of the Educational Society for Noble Maidens, better known as the Smolny Institute. This decision emphasized the importance of women in the education and upbringing of the next generation and reflected a shift in the approach to education in Russia. The Smolny Institute became an important institution, shaping the cultural and educational traditions of its time. At the time, it was the only educational institution in Russia offering girls the opportunity to receive a secondary education. Catherine initiated the opening of this institution, marking a significant step toward expanding educational opportunities for women in the country.

By the end of the 18th century, the situation with female education in the Russian Empire was extremely challenging. Among the Russian nobility, the primary focus was on how to successfully marry off their daughters. Girls' education was often provided at home and was intermittent, which did not contribute to the full development of their knowledge and skills. Thus, the issue of female education remained relevant and required a serious revision in the context of a changing society.

At the Smolny Institute, the main focus was on preparing future "good housewives, faithful wives, and caring mothers." Here, young noblewomen were instilled with the skills of good upbringing, good character, social interaction, and politeness. Townspeople were prepared for the roles of governesses in noble families, housekeepers, and craftswomen. The institute's educational program was narrower compared to educational institutions for boys, reflecting the traditional gender roles of the time.

The institute was a closed educational institution, where girls were taken from their families at the age of 5-6 and returned only after 12 years. Catherine II created this institution in order to protect its students from the negative influence of the surrounding society.

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Institutes for noble maidens: history in ten facts

Institutes Institutes for noble maidens represent a unique phenomenon in the history of women's education and upbringing. These educational institutions were established in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries to prepare girls from noble families for life in society. Key facts about institutes for noble maidens include their founding in 1764, when Catherine the Great approved the first charter. The curriculum included not only general subjects but also courses in art, music, and languages. The institutes also played an important role in the formation of the female intelligentsia and facilitated the employment of graduates. Unlike regular schools, these educational institutions provided educational opportunities for girls from diverse social backgrounds. Over time, institutes for noble maidens became centers of culture and enlightenment, and their graduates often assumed active positions in society. The closure of such institutions in the early 20th century was a consequence of social change and revolutionary events. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Institutes for Noble Maidens continues to influence modern perceptions of female education and the role of women in society.

The educational institution, which came under the control of Maria Feodorovna, became the focus of her reform efforts. Her first step was to propose raising the admission age for girls to eight years. The Empress rightly pointed out that it was too early to separate girls from their family environment at the age of five or six. This initiative contributed to the children's more harmonious development and allowed them to maintain ties with their families during an important period in their lives.

Emperor Paul, noticing his wife's passion for the work entrusted to her, in 1797 transferred two foundling homes in St. Petersburg and Moscow, including all associated institutions, to her management. It is noteworthy that even during a period of deteriorating marital relations and the possible fall of his wife into disgrace, the Emperor did not reverse his decisions, which demonstrates his respect for her work and dedication to her cause.

Contemporaries noted Maria Feodorovna as an active, intelligent, and powerful individual with a clear position on many issues. Court historian Nikolai Karamzin expressed the opinion that she could have become the best Minister of Education in Russia, although his judgment may have been biased. Nevertheless, the Empress took her responsibilities seriously: she attracted energetic and wealthy people to the cause and also created her own chancery. As a result, she dedicated 34 years of her life to the development of female education and charity, which significantly influenced social transformations in the country.

After the assassination of Paul I in 1801, Maria Feodorovna was awarded the titles of Dowager Empress and Empress Mother. Her sons, Alexander I and Nicholas I, deeply respected her and supported her in all her endeavors. During this period, she played an important role in the life of the Russian Empire, influencing politics and public affairs. The support of her sons and her own efforts contributed to strengthening stability in the country and preserving the traditions of the monarchy.

Which educational institutions were under the care of the Department

Maria Feodorovna became a significant figure in the field of female education, which led to significant changes in this area. With her active participation, more than ten new educational institutions were added to the existing institutes for noble maidens. Some of them were initially called schools, among which the Orphanage for the daughters of commoners, merchants, artisans, townspeople, priests and courtiers, known as the Mariinsky Institute, stands out. Also noteworthy were the schools of the Order of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg and Moscow, better known as the Catherine Institutes, and the Girls' School of the Military Orphanage, now known as the Pavlovsk Institute. These educational institutions played a key role in establishing accessible and high-quality education for women in Russia.

Most of the educational institutions were located in St. Petersburg and Moscow, but there were also institutions in other cities of the empire, such as Kharkov and Poltava. The Dowager Empress oversaw schools for the daughters of Life Guards soldiers and lower naval ranks, located in Sevastopol and Nikolayev. These institutions played a vital role in the education and social support of military families, providing access to quality education for girls from various backgrounds.

By the end of Maria Feodorovna's life, approximately six thousand girls were studying in the girls' schools she oversaw. This number constituted approximately half of all students in Russian secondary schools for girls and significantly exceeded the figures at the beginning of the century.

In 1903, the Women's Pedagogical Institute was founded as part of the VUIM—one of the first universities in Russia to provide education for girls. This institute played an important role in the development of female education and the training of qualified teachers.

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In the past, this was practically the only means of earning money for women.

In 1797, a The Midwifery Institute, now known as the D. O. Ott Research Institute of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproduction, was originally a maternity hospital with only 20 beds. The Institute quickly became a center for midwifery education in Russia, accepting young women from fully supported orphanages. This played a significant role in training qualified midwives and improving the quality of healthcare services in the country. Students are accepted to the midwifery school between the ages of 14 and 19. During their studies, they complete practical training, caring for pregnant women in the maternity hospital located next to the school. Upon completion of the course, the girls take a challenging exam. Those who successfully pass it receive a certificate of completion, which allows them to obtain a professional license. The Empress, seeking to reward outstanding graduates, awards them substantial cash prizes. These measures highlight the importance of the obstetric profession and contribute to raising quality standards in maternal and child health care in Russia.

In his work "Letters from St. Petersburg 1810-1811", F. Fagnani offers the reader a unique perspective on life in St. Petersburg at the beginning of the 19th century. The correspondence, translated by I. Konstantinova and published in 2009 in St. Petersburg, allows for a deeper understanding of the historical context and social realities of that time. The author describes not only cultural events, but also the daily life of the city's residents, their customs and traditions. This work is a valuable source for the study of not only literature, but also the history of Russia, as well as the socio-cultural changes that took place in St. Petersburg in the early 1800s.

Initially, the Institute enrolled only 20 midwives, but by 1826 their number had increased to 60. During the first hundred years of its existence, the Institute trained approximately 3,000 midwives. Similar institutions were opened at the St. Petersburg and Moscow Foundling Homes, which contributed to the recruitment of women into the medical field. This was an important step toward expanding opportunities for women in the profession and changing the role of women in society. Often viewed as a "ministry of education for women," VUIM actually covered a much broader range of tasks than just female education. The organization actively participated in the development of educational initiatives and programs aimed at improving the quality of education in general, which contributed to the dissemination of knowledge and increased literacy among various segments of the population. The largest institutions under the supervision of Maria Feodorovna were the foundling homes, which housed illegitimate children and foundlings from across the country. These homes were intended to raise both boys and girls. The empress's main achievement was her desire to reduce the high mortality rate among abandoned infants. Foundling homes not only ensured the survival of children but also provided them with education and professional skills. Previously, pupils remained in such institutions until the age of 15-16, but at the initiative of Maria Feodorovna, the period of stay was extended to provide more thorough training in crafts: for boys until the age of 21, and for girls until the age of 18. This change played a significant role in improving the children's future and their integration into society. Craft training took place in workshops operating at the homes, such as bookbinding, carpentry, metalworking, shoemaking, tailoring, weaving, embroidery, and lacemaking. These workshops provided practical training and the development of the skills necessary for mastering various crafts. The most academically gifted boys had the opportunity to enroll in university or the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy. For such children, special Latin classes were created in the orphanages, where they were taught the Latin required for admission to these educational institutions. The curriculum of these classes corresponded to the gymnasium level, which helped prepare students for successful further education. The French classes taught talented girls, preparing them for the role of tutors in noble families. The curriculum covered subjects such as arithmetic, Russian, French, and German, drawing, history, geography, music, dance, and various women's handicrafts, including dressmaking, headdress making, and flower making. These skills were essential for the education of noblewomen. Over time, logic, rhetoric, and pedagogy were added to the curriculum. Students also received practical training in the lower grades of the Foundling Hospital, the Smolny Institute, and the School of the Order of St. Catherine. This training ensured high educational standards for future teachers and contributed to their successful careers in the nobility.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the practice of placing children in foster peasant families was widespread in Russia. Due to the fact that the number of infants entering orphanages significantly exceeded their capacity, a network of rural schools was developed. By 1902, there were 148 such educational institutions in the country. According to 1904 data, almost 60 thousand children were in both orphanages. This indicates a significant social problem of that time and the need to create alternative solutions for the education and care of children.

Maria Feodorovna played a key role in the development of the education system for deaf and blind children in Russia. It all began in 1806, when during a walk in Pavlovsk Park, she met a deaf-mute boy, the son of Lieutenant General Fyodor Akhverdov, who was the educator of Nikolai and Mikhail Pavlovich. The next day, the Empress approached the boy's aunt for help in educating children with disabilities. This episode became the starting point for the creation of special educational institutions and programs aimed at integrating and developing such children into society.

Your nephew haunted me all night. I pondered the fate of him and children like him, and only after I got dressed today did I summon Secretary G. I. Villamov. I instructed him to arrange for one of the most renowned professors from abroad to establish a school for the deaf in St. Petersburg. The first students of this educational institution will be your brother's children.

The Empress kept her promise and invited the Polish professor Vincent-Anselm Zygmunt. He was soon replaced by Jean-Baptiste Joffrey, a student of the French Abbé Roche Sicard and director of the Paris Institute for the Deaf. Thus, the Experimental School for the Deaf was founded in Pavlovsk. From its opening in 1806 until 1810, funding was entirely provided by the Empress. Initially, the school enrolled nine children, then began enrolling six boys and six girls from the St. Petersburg Foundling Hospital and from noble families. Over time, the number of students increased, and courses for training teachers of the deaf were opened at the school. Between 1810 and 1910, the Experimental School was attended by 2,205 students, of whom 1,929 successfully completed their studies.

In 1807, Maria Feodorovna founded a school for blind children, marking a significant step in the development of special education in Russia. To direct this educational institution, Alexander I invited Valentin Hauy, one of the first typhlopedagogues and a French philanthropist who made a significant contribution to helping people with visual impairments. This initiative not only improved educational conditions for blind children but also led to the formation of a system of typhlopedagogy in the country.

By the end of the 19th century, a whole network of similar institutions had formed within the Department of Institutions for the Care of People with Disabilities. The Guardianship of Empress Maria Alexandrovna, wife of Alexander II, for the Blind, and the Guardianship of Maria Feodorovna, wife of Alexander III, for the Deaf-Mute, were assigned to the VUIM. These institutions included public schools that provided additional craft training for boys and girls, as well as almshouses and a farm-school in Murzinka. In the Aleksandrovsky District of the Yekaterinburg Governorate, a machine-building plant of the Guardianship of the Deaf-Mute and ophthalmological clinics operated. By 1902, the VUIM supervised 44 schools for the blind and deaf-mute, emphasizing the importance and scale of efforts to integrate and support people with disabilities into society.

Maria Feodorovna also cared for boys' educational institutions. In 1802, she founded the Nikolaevsky Gatchina Orphanage, which became a preparatory department for the best students of the St. Petersburg Orphanage. The institute followed the curriculum of real gymnasiums, offering an education with an emphasis on mathematics and the natural sciences. This institution played a significant role in shaping the educational system of the time and preparing young people for further education and professional work.

The Dowager Empress actively managed commercial schools In St. Petersburg and Moscow, accepting orphaned boys from the merchant class. In 1843, the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, which had moved to St. Petersburg, was transferred to the department of Maria Feodorovna and became known as the Alexander Lyceum. This move was an important event in the history of education, as it improved learning conditions and expanded opportunities for talented children from disadvantaged families.

During her life, Maria Feodorovna initiated the creation of about 30 charitable institutions, most of which were aimed at helping children. Her contribution to the development of the social sphere and care for children left a significant mark on the history of philanthropy.

What ideas about education did Maria Feodorovna adhere to?

Maria Feodorovna made a significant contribution to education and charity, but critics noted that her approach to education was distinguished by a down-to-earth spirit. They criticized her for excessive formalism in the management of educational institutions and for focusing only on external aspects, which created a sense of ostentation.

Until its dissolution, VUIM remained a closed and conservative institution, strictly adhering to the principles of a rigid class hierarchy. Its activities were largely determined by the mood of the imperial family, which hindered its adaptation to the new demands of the times and limited the involvement of public initiative.

The issue of female education became especially pressing during the reign of Maria Feodorovna. Her views on education were formed in her youth and differed sharply from the policies of Catherine II and Alexander I. Maria Feodorovna advocated strict class divisions of educational institutions and did not allow deviations from her principles. For example, a girl whose father met all the criteria of high birth but worked as a sculptor was not admitted to the nobility department of the Smolny Institute. Furthermore, Maria Feodorovna had initially planned to abolish the bourgeois section, but her husband opposed this decision.

She openly admitted that she saw serious problems in the mixing of noble maidens and bourgeois women. The duties and purposes of these two categories of women differ significantly. The development of talents and mastery of the arts, which play an important role in the education of noble maidens, can be harmful and even destructive for bourgeois women. This can lead them outside their usual social circle and lead to dangerous interactions that threaten their virtue. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure their separation.

The educational system in women's institutes of the time was weak, as the primary focus was on preparing girls for the roles of wife, mother, and housewife. The prevailing ideas of that era were that a woman's purpose was limited solely to these roles. Therefore, it was difficult to expect the empress to have a different view on women's education and opportunities.

Strict rules reigned in the educational institutions of the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. Girls were subjected to rigorous training, taught to obey all instructions on cue. The slightest infractions, such as tardiness or insufficient diligence, were met with severe punishments, including deprivation of visits with their parents. These institutions also used corporal punishment, including flogging, which emphasized the strictness of discipline and the need for unconditional obedience.