Human working memory: how it works and what its capacity is

What is called working memory
What is the difference between short-term and working memory
How working memory works
What is known about the capacity of working memory
How working memory and attention are related
How working memory affects learning
How to take into account the limitations of working memory in the learning process

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This article will provide information on key aspects of the topic. We will cover important points and provide useful tips to help you better understand the subject matter. You will receive up-to-date data and practical recommendations that will be useful for both beginners and more experienced readers. Stay tuned to deepen your knowledge and learn more about the issue under consideration.

What modern science understands by working, or operative, memory and why short-term memory and working memory are not the same thing;
How the most famous model of working memory is structured and what alternative ideas about it exist;
How much information can be stored in working memory at a time;
How are working memory and attention related;
How working memory influences learning and how to take into account its limitations to learn more effectively.

What is called working memory

Working memory in modern science refers to a system that temporarily stores and processes a limited amount of information when solving cognitive tasks. For example, when you read this text, your working memory is actively involved in understanding and assimilating information. It is often compared to a computer's RAM, but this term is not as common in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. Working memory plays a key role in learning and performing everyday tasks, enabling the manipulation of data and maintaining attention. Working memory plays a significant role in overall intelligence and directly impacts abilities in comprehension, reasoning, planning, decision-making, and learning. Research shows that effective working memory facilitates better information retention and deeper analysis, making it a key aspect of the cognitive functions necessary for academic and professional success. Improving working memory can lead to significant increases in intellectual ability and overall productivity. Research conducted at the University of Missouri in Columbia (USA) highlights the importance of working memory functions. For example, a teacher tells the class that Earth is the third planet from the Sun and then asks one of the students to point to Earth on a map of the solar system. Although the task appears simple at first glance, it actually involves several complex mental operations. This highlights the importance of working memory in the educational process and its role in the perception and processing of information. It is important for students to remember several key points: first, the Earth's position as the third planet from the Sun, and second, the task itself, which they must complete in front of the class. This can be anxiety-inducing, as students worry about failing themselves and making a bad impression. When completing the task at the board, students must remember to start counting not from the Sun, but from the closest planet, and stop at the number "three," waiting for confirmation from the teacher. All of these cognitive processes occur simultaneously and compete for the limited resources of working memory, highlighting the need to train and develop attentional and cognitive skills for successful task completion. The earliest use of the term "working memory" was not in the context of brain research, but in computer software development. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon used the term to describe the structures that temporarily store information needed to execute commands in their 1956 program, the Logic Theory Machine. This program is considered one of the first prototypes of artificial intelligence and played a significant role in the development of computer science and cognitive psychology. In 1960, behavioral psychologists George Miller, Eugene Galanter, and Karl Pribram coined the term "working memory" to describe the part of memory responsible for storing information needed to perform everyday tasks. Working memory plays a key role in our lives, allowing us to process and manipulate information in real time. For example, when preparing for an important presentation at work, working memory helps us retain and organize ideas, maintain attention, and perform various cognitive operations. This makes working memory an important component for successfully completing tasks and achieving goals in professional activities.

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This goal has intermediate subgoals, such as Preparing for a presentation, sending reminders to colleagues, waking up on time, packing, and arriving at work. Although a person is not always conscious of these steps, it is important to retain relevant information in memory. However, this does not quite correspond to what is called working memory in cognitive psychology. Working memory involves actively retaining and manipulating information, which is necessary for performing various tasks under conditions of limited time and resources.

What is the difference between short-term and working memory

Early in the development of psychology, the concept of two types of memory was formed: short-term and long-term. In 1890, American philosopher and psychologist William James distinguished between primary memory, responsible for the perception of current events, and secondary memory, which stores memories of the past. Throughout the 20th century, many scientists relied on this division when creating their own theoretical models of memory, which contributed to a deeper understanding of the processes of memorization and information retrieval. Research in this field continues to evolve, revealing new aspects of memory and its impact on human cognitive function.

In 1968, psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin presented one of the most detailed and influential models of memory. They hypothesized that memory consists of three primary components, each with its own unique function. This model became the basis for further research in the field of cognitive psychology and understanding the mechanisms of storing and processing information.

The sensory register receives information from the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) and records it for a split second.
Short-term storage “records” information from the sensory register and stores it for 15-30 seconds - unless a person consciously repeats it to retain it in memory.
Long-term storage differs from the two previous structures in that the information in it does not disappear over time and can be stored throughout a person's life.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model Infographics: Maya Malgina for Skillbox Media

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model posits that information transfer between different memory components occurs through mechanisms that selectively "copy" data. Information first enters the sensory register, then is transferred to short-term storage, and from there to long-term memory. According to this theory, access to long-term storage occurs in a similar way: a person retrieves the necessary information, for example, a phone number or a formula for solving a problem, and returns it to short-term memory for later use. This model emphasizes the importance of different stages of information processing and their role in memorizing and recalling data.

Over time, the concept of the structure that temporarily stores information before it is forgotten or transferred to long-term memory has changed. People began to realize that such a system not only stores data, but also performs various operations with it. As a result, a terminological distinction arose between short-term memory and working memory. This approach allows for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of information processing and its storage in the human brain.

Short-term memory is a storage facility in which information is recorded for a period of less than one minute. According to the candidate of psychological sciences and research fellow at the Laboratory of Cognitive Research of the Yaroslavl State University named after According to P. G. Demidov and Anna Savinova, this aspect of memory plays a key role in information processing. However, alternative interpretations also exist. For example, neurophysiologist Vyacheslav Dubynin defines short-term memory as "current day memory," which also suggests its connection with medium-term memory. Understanding the mechanisms of short-term memory is important for studying cognitive processes and can contribute to improving learning and memorization methods. The system that not only stores but also processes information is called working memory. In this system, data is retained for the time required to complete the current task. For example, when a student displays the Earth on a map of the solar system at the blackboard, information about the planet's location will be stored in working memory. If the student solves a physics problem for ten minutes, their working memory will store the problem conditions, the necessary formulas—which can be retrieved from long-term memory if they have studied them previously, or just learned—as well as the steps they have already completed in the solution process. Working memory plays a key role in learning and task performance, allowing you to effectively manage and process information in real time.

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Why is information studied in a hurry before an exam quickly forgotten? This is due to the way our brain memorizes and processes information. When we try to absorb material at the last minute, we often don't pay enough attention to understanding and comprehending it. This approach leads to superficial memorization based on short-term memory.

Short-term memory isn't designed to retain information long-term. It functions as a temporary storage facility, and without repetition or deep processing, information is quickly lost. Furthermore, the stress and anxiety that students experience before exams can negatively impact their ability to concentrate and retain material.

To avoid rapid forgetting and improve memorization, it's important to plan your study time in advance, use active learning methods, and review material. This will not only help you better prepare for exams but also consolidate your knowledge over the long term.

How Working Memory Works

In 1974, British psychologists Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed a multicomponent model of working memory based on the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory. This model has become one of the most famous in the field of psychology. Initially, it included three key components, but in 2000, Baddeley updated and expanded his concept by adding a fourth element. Baddeley and Hitch's working memory model includes several important components, each of which plays a role in processing and storing information.

The central executive, or central control element (the term depends on the translation), generally regulates cognitive processes. According to Baddeley and Hitch's theory, it is responsible for selective attention and inhibition of automatic reactions, thanks to which a person can focus on the current task without being distracted by extraneous stimuli. The central executive also coordinates the work of subordinate systems - the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.
The phonological loop (or phonological cycle) processes auditory information - primarily verbal information, that is, speech. Therefore, this component, according to Baddeley, plays a very important role in a child's acquisition of language, as well as in the study of foreign languages. This component consists of two interconnected subsystems: the phonological store, which records heard sounds for a few seconds, and the articulatory loop, which is essentially an internal voice that silently pronounces sounds and helps you remember them for a longer period. When a person reads text rather than listens to speech, the articulatory loop also converts this information into phonological information—through the same internal pronunciation.
The visual-spatial sketchpad (or visual-spatial sketchpad) is responsible for processing all non-verbal visual information and spatial representations—in other words, the environment, pictures, and images. According to Baddeley, this component can be activated in parallel with the phonological loop, which processes auditory information, without either subsystem interfering with the other. This allows a person to simultaneously process verbal and visual information—for example, while listening to a teacher and looking at the pictures and graphs in their presentation. Dual coding theory is based on this feature of working memory. According to it, a person understands and remembers information better when it is presented simultaneously with both words and visual images.
The episodic buffer is the component that Baddeley included in his working memory theory 25 years after its first publication in 1974. It was needed to account for phenomena that the original model could not explain, such as why meaningful phrases are remembered better and in greater volume than a set of unrelated words. Baddeley proposed a mechanism that links information coming from different sensory systems (words, sounds, images, even smells and tastes) and forms a coherent mnemonic formation from them—a story, a life event, a movie scene, and so on. This mechanism also links new information with similar information already stored in our long-term memory. According to the psychologist, this mechanism enables new concepts to form in our consciousness.

According to Baddeley, all three components, subordinate to the central executive, actively participate in the process of knowledge accumulation, interacting with long-term memory systems. The visual-spatial sketchpad is associated with visual semantics, which implies a connection with the semantic meanings of images. The phonological loop is responsible for language comprehension, and the episodic buffer stores memories of events. These interactions are important for the efficient processing and storage of information in the human brain.

The working memory model proposed by Baddeley in 2000. Infographics: Maya Malgina for Skillbox Media

There are various models of how working memory works, and some researchers do not consider it a separate mechanism. In 1995, psychologists Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch hypothesized that long-term memory contains structures that provide direct access to stored information needed to solve current tasks. This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between working and long-term memory, as well as their role in cognitive processes.

American psychologist Nelson Cowan argues that working memory is a part of long-term memory. According to his model, of all the representations stored in long-term memory, only a small number of objects are activated at any given time, based on the focus of attention. Cowan also emphasizes that central executive processes play a key role in managing the focus of attention. This concept emphasizes the importance of interactions between working and long-term memory in information processing and decision making.

Cowan's Model of Embedded Processes Infographics: Maya Malgina for Skillbox Media

According to Anna Savinova, there are many theoretical models of working memory, but none of them is universal and cannot explain all observed phenomena. Each model has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, the Baddeley and Hitch model has a general focus and does not always effectively explain various aspects of perception. Nevertheless, as Anna emphasizes, this model continues to be actively used to describe high-level cognitive processes, such as problem solving, logical reasoning, and decision making. This confirms the importance of further study and development of working memory theories for a deeper understanding of human thinking.

What is known about working memory capacity

Working memory capacity is defined as the amount of information a person can simultaneously store and process to perform the current task. Research shows that, on average, this capacity is quite limited, but it increases with age, reaching a peak in middle age and then decreases in old age. In addition, working memory capacity is not a constant value. Intense mental workload can significantly reduce capacity, and rest is essential for recovery. There are many approaches to defining capacity in science. Different disciplines offer their own explanations and measurement methods, making this topic multifaceted and interesting to research. Capacity can be characterized from the perspectives of physics, mathematics, and even biology, each providing unique tools and theories. Studying these different aspects allows for a deeper understanding of how capacity is defined and used in various scientific contexts. Supporters of slot theory, also known as cell theory, believe that human working memory has a limited capacity for storing information. This memory can hold a certain number of elements, such as numbers, letters, words, and visual objects. When the number of elements exceeds this limit, the "excess" data cannot be consolidated into working memory, resulting in an effect in which information is perceived but quickly forgotten. Thus, if the amount of information exceeds the capacity of memory, it can be forgotten almost instantly.

For a long time, the prevailing scientific idea was the "magic number" of 7 ± 2, proposed by George Miller. In his article published in 1956, Miller argued that an adult human can remember and recall five to nine pieces of information, such as words or numbers, immediately after exposure. However, in 2001, Nelson Cowan put forward an alternative hypothesis, according to which this number is significantly smaller - 4 ± 1, which implies a range of three to five pieces of information. These studies highlight the importance of understanding the limitations of human memory and their impact on information processing.

This is not to say that in real life, a person can only operate with four or five letters or numbers at a time. The human mind is able to overcome the limitations of working memory using mnemonic techniques such as grouping. Such methods allow information to be effectively organized, improving memorization and processing. Grouping helps create associations and connections between elements, which significantly facilitates their perception and assimilation.

Grouping, or chunking, is the process of combining several individual elements into a single, coherent memory. This allows information to be remembered more effectively, as it is perceived as a single unit. For example, the number 29071954 is easier to remember if represented as a date—July 29, 1954. Similarly, a telephone number is easier to remember if the ten-digit sequence is broken down into four blocks of the format xxx-xxx-xx-xx. Using this grouping method helps improve memory and facilitate the memorization process.

The grouping of information largely depends on individual experience, knowledge, as well as the characteristics of language and culture. Anna Savinova emphasizes that for a person who is well familiar with a particular text, a quote from it is perceived as a single information block. Meanwhile, for those encountering the text for the first time, it appears as a sequence of words, that is, individual elements. This is explained by the fact that in the first case, working memory activates the necessary data from long-term memory. Proper grouping of information promotes better perception and memorization, which is especially important in learning and communication.

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Cell Theory argues that working memory operates on a binary logic: each new element either occupies a "free slot" in memory or is not recorded at all. However, proponents of the more modern resource theory present an alternative view. In 2014, psychologists Wei Jie Ma, Masood Hussein, and Paul Bays, based on their research, found that memorization accuracy decreases as the number of elements to be remembered increases. At the same time, the most significant elements, such as those needed to solve a specific task, are remembered better. This occurs at the expense of the memorization of less important data. Thus, working memory is selective: information is stored and selected not randomly, but based on the priority of elements. The higher the priority of a particular element, the more accurately it will be remembered. Elements with low priority receive fewer resources, which negatively impacts their memorization.

In 2017, a team of researchers from the University of Chicago conducted a series of fascinating experiments aimed at studying color perception. In one experiment, colored squares, varying in number from one to six, briefly appeared on a screen. Participants were then shown a blank screen and asked to reproduce the colors of the squares they had seen, matching the hues on a color wheel as accurately as possible. Participants could "color" the squares in any order, which allowed them to assess their recall ability and the accuracy of their color perception. These studies open new horizons in understanding human color perception and its impact on memory.

The studies show that students initially selected the color of the square they remembered most clearly. When moving on to the second square, the accuracy of hue selection significantly decreased, and the colors of the fifth and sixth squares were chosen almost at random. This supports the theory that working memory resources are unevenly distributed, with some elements remembered better than others. The number of elements that a person can hold in working memory corresponds to the range proposed by Cowan, equal to 4 ± 1, that is, from three to five. These results highlight the importance of understanding memory mechanisms and their limitations in the context of learning and cognitive processes.

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How are working memory and attention related?

In 2019, cognitive psychologist and professor at the University of Zurich Klaus Oberauer conducted a study on the relationship between attention and memory. He analyzed existing theories on this topic and compared them with the results of experiments. As a result of his research, Oberauer formulated key findings, which were published in a scientific article. These results can help better understand the mechanisms of the human mind, as well as their impact on learning and memorization.

In familiar surroundings, we often do not notice background stimuli, such as the noise of passing cars outside the window. However, when something stands out from the rest of the sounds, such as the sudden screech of brakes or the sound of a car crash, our attention instantly shifts to this stimulus. This process is called perceptual attention and plays a key role in how we perceive the world around us. Perceptual attention allows us to quickly react to potentially dangerous situations, which is important for our safety. Working memory does not always store and process received signals; it depends on conscious intention. A 2016 study demonstrated that participants were able to focus on the movement of an object on a screen despite the presence of distractions. However, when asked about the color of this object, most subjects made errors. A similar experiment confirmed these findings and showed that pre-warning participants about the need to answer a specific question after the task significantly improved performance. This underscores the importance of intentional focus for effective working memory. In a series of experiments conducted in 2018, researcher Oberauer showed participants six words in turn. After each word was presented, the subjects were instructed to remember it or forget it. At this point, each word required attention, as the participants had no prior knowledge of which word would be important to remember. The results of the experiment showed that the subjects remembered only the words they considered relevant, while the rest were discarded. This suggests that the brain effectively utilizes the limited resources of working memory, selecting only the necessary information for storage.

How Working Memory Affects Learning

As a child ages, an increase in working memory capacity is observed. Research shows that seventh-graders are able to process more information than first-graders, but individual differences exist. In his 2014 review article, "Working Memory Underlies Cognitive Development, Learning, and Education," Nelson Cowen notes that working memory performance is influenced not only by capacity but also by processing speed and overall knowledge. These factors vary among students, making their abilities unique. Understanding these aspects is important for educators and parents seeking to support their children's cognitive development. Nelson Cowen identifies three key ways in which working memory plays a significant role in the learning process. First, it facilitates the acquisition of new information, enabling effective processing and retention of educational material. Second, working memory supports concentration and attention, which are necessary for successful completion of academic tasks. Third, it influences problem-solving and critical thinking abilities, which are important aspects of the learning process. Thus, understanding the functions of working memory can significantly improve approaches to learning and student development. Forming new concepts involves creating or identifying connections between different pieces of information. To successfully complete this process, it is necessary to hold all the important components in mind. This mental operation requires concentration and the ability to think associatively, which is especially important for the effective analysis and synthesis of knowledge. The researcher gives an example that illustrates how a young child learns concepts. To understand that "a tiger is a big striped cat," the child must simultaneously operate with two key characteristics: "striped" and "big cat." Omitting one of these characteristics can lead to misperception and confusion between a tiger, a lion, and a zebra. Even simple mathematical problems, such as adding two numbers, require considering three elements: the two terms and their sum. This emphasizes the importance of perceiving information in a complex manner for the correct understanding and analysis of the world around us.

According to Cowen, working memory is crucial for determining how complex concepts a person can handle. If working memory capacity is insufficient, even if a student memorizes a new learning concept, they will be unable to understand it and adapt it to other contexts. For example, when solving a problem using a template, they may be unable to identify the solution principle and apply it to another problem. Thus, developing working memory is an important aspect of the educational process, facilitating deep understanding and effective application of knowledge.

Research shows that having prior knowledge on a given topic significantly facilitates the process of completing tasks related to that topic. This is explained by the fact that connections between elements of information already exist in working memory, allowing for the faster processing and assimilation of new data. The more knowledge accumulated, the easier it is to integrate new information, which contributes to more effective problem solving and increases productivity. Thus, prior preparation and training play a key role in developing skills and abilities related to a specific area.

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A recent study has shown that the mechanism Information acquisition is much more complex than previously thought. Experts in a given field sometimes expend more mental effort than novices. This occurs because of the large number of connections between pieces of information, which leads to numerous associations, questions, and doubts. Thus, in-depth knowledge of a topic can either facilitate or complicate the information processing process. Working memory and attention control are closely related. Psychologist Susan Gathercole, co-author of Working Memory and Learning: A Practical Guide for Teachers, notes that children with attention disorders often have problems with working memory. These problems are characteristic of approximately 10% of children. Improving working memory can contribute to increased attention, which is important for successful learning and development of children. Typical signs that a child has difficulty following instructions include incomplete completion of tasks, skipping individual steps in the problem-solving process, and frequent distractions during lessons. These symptoms indicate that the cognitive load exceeds the child's capacity, leading to working memory overload and impairing their ability to effectively coordinate mental effort. It is important to recognize these signs in order to promptly offer support and adapt learning tasks, helping to improve concentration and academic success.

Gathercole emphasizes that underdeveloped working memory has a negative impact on student academic performance. This hinders the learning process in reading, math, and science in both elementary and middle school. Developing working memory is critical for successful acquisition of educational material and the development of necessary skills. Improving this cognitive function contributes to overall academic performance and helps children better cope with academic tasks.

According to Nelson Cowen, the load on working memory reaches its maximum during the process of learning new material. The efficiency of processing new information directly depends on the capacity of this memory.

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The forgetting curve is a concept that describes how information is lost from memory over time. Developed by psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, this curve shows that people forget new information quickly, especially in the first few days after learning it. However, there are ways to help students better remember material and reduce the impact of the forgetting curve.

One effective method is regular review of learned material. Repetition at regular intervals helps strengthen neural connections and improve long-term memory. It is also helpful to use various memorization techniques, such as associations, visualization, and mind mapping. These methods make learning more active and engaging.

Furthermore, it is important to diversify teaching approaches. The use of multimedia materials, group discussions, and hands-on assignments can significantly increase student interest and improve information retention. Working with material in a variety of formats will help students remember it better.

Creating a comfortable and motivating learning environment also plays a key role. Support from teachers and an even distribution of the workload will help students focus on learning and reduce stress, which in turn promotes better memorization.

Thus, understanding the forgetting curve and applying effective memorization techniques can significantly improve the learning process and promote long-term information retention.

How to take into account the limitations of working memory in the learning process

To take into account the characteristics of working memory and its limitations in the learning process, it is necessary to adapt the level of difficulty of the material to the cognitive development of students. This means avoiding introducing children and beginners to concepts that they are unable to comprehend. It is better to start with simpler topics and gradually increase the difficulty, allowing students to accumulate knowledge and confidence. This approach promotes better information absorption and increases the effectiveness of the educational process. It is also important to use a variety of teaching methods, including visual and audiovisual aids, to facilitate perception and comprehension.

In 2007, scientists developed a method for assessing the complexity of a concept based on the number of working memory slots required to master it. This study identified age stages at which children reach different levels of understanding. This approach can be useful in educational practices, helping to adapt teaching methods to the cognitive abilities of children at different ages.

At about eighteen months, children begin to understand the concept of "greater than" by comparing two objects, such as an elephant and a mouse. By age five, they can master the operation of addition. However, understanding fractions and proportions requires holding four elements in mind, and according to research, the average child is not ready for this until age 11. This highlights the importance of a consistent approach to teaching mathematics that takes into account the age-related characteristics and cognitive abilities of children.

In certain cases, it may be appropriate to revise a concept or task by reducing the number of objects and the relationships between them in order to simplify the process and increase efficiency. This approach optimizes analysis and decision-making, which is especially important under conditions of limited resources and time.

John Sweller's cognitive load theory focuses on optimizing the delivery of educational information in order to effectively transfer knowledge to students, given the limitations of their working memory. This theory emphasizes the importance of structuring material to improve comprehension and memorization. We have already examined aspects of this theory in detail, which allows us to better understand how to properly organize the educational process for maximum effectiveness.

The educational process must take into account the working memory limitations of both students and teachers. American psychologist Robert Slevke emphasizes that working memory abilities have a significant impact on sentence structure. In a series of experiments, he found that under increased cognitive load, people are unable to formulate phrases in a logical order "from the known to the new," which leads to a disruption of this order. This observation is especially important for teachers, as explaining new material places significant demands on their working memory. This can lead to difficulties in understanding and retaining information. Teachers should consider these aspects to improve the quality of instruction and increase the effectiveness of knowledge transfer.

Nelson Cowen emphasizes that when formulating points, teachers should consider what students already know and what information may be new to them. For example, consider the statement, "Yuri Gagarin was the first person in history to fly into space." This sentence contains both well-known facts and unique information, making it effective for the educational process. The correct approach to presenting information not only holds the audience's attention but also promotes better assimilation of the material.

When a student hears the full sentence, the name of the first person in space will likely not stick in their memory. The statement, "The first person in space was Yuri Gagarin," first provides context and then states the name that students should remember. This approach helps students better absorb information and remember key facts.

Educational developers should remember that theories regarding working memory are not set in stone. Research into cognitive load and working memory is ongoing, and cognitive scientists regularly uncover new findings. Therefore, it is important to stay current with current scientific research in this area. New data can both confirm and refute existing theories, as well as refine established concepts. This knowledge will enable the creation of more effective educational programs based on modern scientific approaches.

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