Long before the Unified State Exam: How those applying to universities in Tsarist Russia passed their exams

Contents:

• How and where did children and teenagers in the Russian Empire study?
• How the examination system came about and what did society dissatisfy with it?
• Who was admitted to exams and how?
• What was the exam procedure?
• What subjects were taken for the matriculation certificate?
• How were grades awarded?
• What was the exam procedure?
• So how did it work - no one cheated?
• How did they enter universities

Discussions about the format of final school exams and university entrance examinations continue. More than a hundred years ago, during the Russian Empire, this topic also generated considerable controversy. In this text, we will consider the university admissions process at that time and what aspects caused dissatisfaction among those involved.

In this article, you will become familiar with the key aspects of the topic, which will form the basis for your further understanding. We will cover important points that will help you gain a deeper understanding of the issue and apply the acquired knowledge in practice. Read on to learn more.

• When did the first gymnasiums appear in Russia, what did they teach there and why were they criticized;
• Why the examination system in gymnasiums did not take shape immediately and why was it criticized;
• How were students admitted to exams and what proportion of gymnasium students failed the tests;
• What was the examination procedure and what subjects were taken;
• Why were twos common and threes considered a good grade;
• Is it true that examiners turned a blind eye to cheating;
• How did people enter universities and where was the most competitive?

How and where did children and teenagers study in the Russian Empire?

In the Russian Empire of the 19th - early 20th centuries, there was a complex and diverse system of secondary education. This system included gymnasiums for boys and girls, progymnasiums, realschule (real schools), military educational institutions, as well as various schools and seminaries. This diversity of educational institutions provided access to knowledge for various segments of the population and contributed to the development of the country's human resources. Secondary education during this period played a key role in shaping the intellectual and cultural level of society, as well as in training specialists for various sectors of the economy and civil service. Classical gymnasiums provided the most prestigious secondary education, initially creating the conditions for applicants to enter universities. Although graduates of other types of educational institutions also had the opportunity to enter universities, this was significantly more difficult for them. Russia had a class system that prevented members of the lower classes from obtaining higher education, limiting their chances for successful careers and social advancement. Thus, gymnasiums played a key role in shaping the country's educational hierarchy.

In this article, we will focus on gymnasium examinations, as the majority of students consisted of former gymnasium students. An examination of the characteristics and structure of these examinations will allow us to better understand their impact on the educational process and student preparation. Gymnasium examinations played a key role in shaping students' knowledge and skills, making them an important topic for analysis.

The initial educational institutions, known as gymnasiums, began to open in every provincial capital in accordance with the decree of Alexander I of January 24, 1803. The same decree prescribed the establishment of universities in each educational district, the number of which initially amounted to six, but increased over time. Gymnasiums were established in close proximity to universities, which facilitated their development. According to the imperial decree, the main goal of education in gymnasiums was to prepare students for further education in higher educational institutions, providing deep knowledge and skills necessary for successful academic and professional activity.

• preparation for listening to university sciences;
• teaching information necessary for a well-bred person;
• preparation of those wishing to become teachers in district, parish and other lower schools (these were schools one step below gymnasiums).

At that time, education was not formally divided into estates. This created unique opportunities for people of different social strata to gain access to the knowledge and skills necessary for personal and professional growth. The class-neutral nature of education contributed to a more equal distribution of educational resources and opportunities, which in turn influenced social mobility and the development of society as a whole.

The gymnasiums were finally formed by 1828, when their Charter was adopted, which was in force until the early 1860s. From that moment on, access to gymnasiums was restricted to the children of nobles and civil servants. This restriction defined the elitist nature of these educational institutions and their role in educating the upper classes.

At the end of the 19th century, there were only 177 classical gymnasiums for boys in the Russian Empire, with 55,000 students. By 1913–1914, the number of gymnasiums had increased to 441, and the number of students had grown to 148,000. Thus, gymnasium education during this period became essentially elitist, accessible only to a limited circle of people.

Historically, both government and private gymnasiums existed, but the majority of educational institutions were state-owned gymnasiums. These institutions played a key role in shaping the educational system and ensuring accessible education for the general population. State-run gymnasiums provided students with a high-quality education, contributing to the development of the intelligentsia and the formation of the country's cultural heritage.

Classical gymnasiums were initially exclusively male-only institutions. Women's gymnasiums only began to open in the early 1860s. However, graduation from such an institution did not provide girls with easy access to university education, as the issue of women's rights to higher education remained controversial until the 1917 Revolution. Although gymnasium girls also took matriculation exams, most continued their studies in higher education courses for women. Thus, female education in Russia is a separate and significant topic, reflecting historical and social changes in society.

Gymnasium students did not always come from wealthy families. Tuition at gymnasiums was fee-based, amounting to approximately 50-60 rubles per year. This amount was equal to half or a third of the monthly salary of minor officials, who earned approximately 120–150 rubles. In cases where there was no breadwinner in the family, for example, if the children were raised by a widow, or if there were several children in the family, education became a significant financial burden.

In such situations, parents had to rely on the support of school district trustees or philanthropists who donated funds for education. They could seek assistance from influential individuals or officials to ensure their child received a personal stipend capable of covering all educational expenses. This approach to funding education allows many children to access high-quality education and develop their abilities, even if their families cannot afford tuition.

The full gymnasium course of study varied in duration throughout history, but the eight-year term became the most common. During this time, gymnasium students studied a wide range of subjects, including religious studies, mathematics, history, geography, statistics, philosophy, art, and the fundamentals of natural science, known as natural history. The curriculum also included political economy, Russian, Latin, and sometimes Greek, German, and French. In addition to the core subjects, gymnasium students could study drawing, physical education, music, and other subjects, which contributed to the comprehensive development of their students.

By the end of the 19th century, classical gymnasiums began to face increasing criticism. Many experts pointed out that the curricula of these institutions were overloaded and did not correspond to the capabilities and levels of preparation of students. Furthermore, strict discipline and mandatory adherence to prescribed standards caused discontent among students and parents. Discussion of these problems became an important topic in the educational environment, which ultimately contributed to changes in the education system and the adaptation of curricula to the needs of students.

How the examination system emerged and what society dissatisfied with it

The examination system began to develop only 25 years after the creation of gymnasiums, in the 1830s and 1840s. This process was driven by the increase in the number of people wishing to enter universities, which led to the need to introduce a competitive selection of applicants. The examination system became an important tool for assessing the knowledge and preparation of students, providing a fairer and more objective approach to the selection of candidates for higher education. Thus, the examination system played a key role in shaping the educational environment and standardizing the requirements for applicants.

Exams, which were called "tests" at that time, were used both for transition to the next level of education and for confirming successful completion of gymnasium. These tests played a key role in the educational system, providing an objective assessment of students' knowledge and skills.

After 1896, transfer exams for the most successful students were abolished. This decision was connected with the coronation of Nicholas II, in honor of which gymnasium students were granted certain concessions. However, it soon became apparent that this measure had a negative impact on academic performance, and exams began to be perceived as a punishment. As a result, in 1907, the Ministry of Public Education reintroduced transfer exams for all gymnasium students. This decision emphasized the importance of monitoring knowledge and maintaining a high level of education in gymnasiums. Final exams were called maturity tests, and the main criterion for success was considered not rote memory, but the student's ability to think independently and understand the essence of the subjects being studied. However, in practice, this requirement often contradicted reality. To successfully pass the exams, young people often needed only satisfactory knowledge, without the need to demonstrate a deep understanding of the material. This is also confirmed by the grading system, which we will discuss below. Since the 1870s, the examination system and gymnasium education have been subject to considerable criticism. Primary attention was paid to those students who experienced physical and psychological difficulties at the end of their studies. This raised concerns among teachers and parents concerned about their children's well-being. Discussions about educational reforms became increasingly pressing, highlighting the need to adapt the education system to the needs of students and changing societal conditions.

In his reflections on the education system, the great Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev shared practical observations based on his own experience of taking and passing exams. He argued that eliminating exams could reduce the time of study by an entire year. Mendeleev proposed retaining only university entrance examinations, considering them necessary depending on the number of applicants. This assertion underscores the importance of streamlining educational processes and adapting the system to modern realities.

Critics note that exams often fail to fulfill their primary function—assessing student learning. Children sometimes study not to acquire real knowledge, but to successfully pass exams. This problem is familiar to many and raises serious questions about the quality of the educational process.

Also read the article "The Unified State Exam Generation": did the introduction of the Unified State Exam really lead to a deterioration in the quality of education in schools?

Who was admitted to the exams and how

Final exams in gymnasiums were held in May, at the end of the academic year. The results of these exams determined whether students would receive matriculation certificates.

The exams were taken by eighth-grade students of gymnasiums, as well as external students who prepared independently without studying at gymnasiums. This category also included graduates of theological seminaries. These exams played an important role in the educational system, providing the opportunity to receive a certificate and further continue education.

External students make up approximately 10% of the total number of examinees, and their number is gradually increasing. As a result, a comprehensive infrastructure was formed around this group, including tutors, teaching aids, and specialized courses. This creates additional opportunities for exam preparation and improves the quality of education for external students.

The students taking the exams were aged 18 to 21. This was due to the strict requirements of the transfer exams between classes, due to which only one in ten students successfully reached the final grade without repeating a year. Such a high level of exam difficulty emphasized the need for serious preparation and dedication on the part of students.

Students planning to take the exams were required to submit an application to the director of the gymnasium six weeks before the exams. Each application was reviewed individually, taking into account the student's moral and intellectual level, as well as their behavior. The gymnasium administration had the right to refuse admission to the exams. For example, in 1877, 57 gymnasium students were rejected for poor academic performance, and another two for moral immaturity. This underscores the importance of both academic achievement and moral character for gymnasium students.

There was a clear contradiction: a student had to be considered morally and mentally mature even before taking the matriculation exams.

An outside applicant for the exam was required to obtain permission from the principal. This required the submission of several documents, including an autobiography, a police certificate of good standing, and certificates of education from other educational institutions.

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Exams were conducted for a fee. In the 1870s, students were charged ten rubles, which went to the needs of the examiners. However, in case of lack of funds, students had the opportunity to submit a request for exemption from payment, attaching a document confirming their financial situation. However, this practice was rarely used.

What was the examination procedure?

Maturity tests were conducted both orally and in writing, depending on the subject. Written exams were conducted in the format of dictation or a test, including problems on the material covered. These assessment methods allow you to test not only knowledge, but also the ability to apply it in practice.

In all gymnasiums of the educational district, written exams began at ten o'clock in the morning. Late students were not allowed to participate. Before the assessment, a general prayer was held, after which the examination rules were read. This created an atmosphere of seriousness and respect for the learning process and also contributed to the development of discipline among the students.

Ten days were allocated for checking written assignments. First, the gymnasium teachers analyzed the work, leaving notes and comments in the margins. These comments could include characteristics of the student. After this, the tests were discussed at a meeting of the examination committee, which decided on assigning a grade by a majority vote. This approach ensures objectivity and a comprehensive review of the work, which contributes to a more accurate determination of the students' level of knowledge.

If the opinions of a subject teacher and the committee did not coincide, the teacher was required to present the student's results for the year, including tests, to support their position. However, in practice, such discussions often remained at a formal level.

The results were announced immediately after the assessment, which excluded any external influence on the committee. The committee handled all documentation and reporting. For example, she certified both draft and final versions of the work. All documentation was kept on school letterhead, mostly handwritten in calligraphic handwriting, and in some cases, typewritten. This ensured a high level of formatting and strict process organization.

After the results were announced, an audit was conducted at the school district, but without the possibility of reviewing grades. University professors, members of the board of trustees, and school district inspectors participated in this audit. They analyzed the work and the evaluation process at the schools. Based on the analysis, special reports were compiled for the Ministry of Public Education.

Only those candidates who successfully passed the written exams were allowed to take the oral examinations. However, there was a certain concession: if examiners could convincingly explain that failure in the written exam was due to random circumstances (for example, a high school student who had shown consistently high results suddenly encountered problems), then this allowed him to be admitted to the oral exam. Nevertheless, such cases often resulted in formal replies stating that "the student was unable to demonstrate his maturity in the written exam, so the committee decided to test his knowledge and skills in the oral exam."

Oral exams test exclusively the material covered in the final grade. This allows for a focus on the current knowledge and skills that students must demonstrate before completing the academic year.

What subjects were taken for the matriculation certificate

High school students took final exams in several subjects. The exams covered key areas of knowledge that help students demonstrate their academic achievement and readiness for further education. The most important subjects for final exams are mathematics, Russian language and literature, as well as foreign languages ​​and social sciences. These exams play a significant role in shaping the students' educational path and assess their level of preparation, critical thinking skills, and ability to apply acquired knowledge in practice. English: Final exams are also an important stage in the life of every high school student, opening doors to new opportunities in the educational and professional spheres.

• The Law of God (oral);
• Russian language (written);
• Ancient Greek, Latin and modern foreign languages ​​(oral and written);
• Mathematics (oral and written);
• History (oral).

It was believed that these disciplines most effectively contribute to the development of thinking.

External students took tests in all subjects, since they needed to confirm the assimilation of the gymnasium minimum knowledge. In this regard, external students were additionally required to pass such subjects as logic, physics and geography. Also, knowledge testing in Russian language and mathematics was carried out more thoroughly than in exams for high school students. This ensured higher standards of assessment and confirmed a deep understanding of the subjects.

Russian is one of the most widely spoken languages ​​in the world. It belongs to the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family and is the official language of the Russian Federation. Russian is used in various spheres of life, including science, culture, and international communication.

The complex grammatical structure, rich vocabulary, and diverse stylistic possibilities make the Russian language unique. It has many dialects and variants, reflecting the diversity of Russian culture and history.

The Russian language also plays an important role in literature. Many famous writers, such as Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Anton Chekhov, used the Russian language to create works that are recognized as world masterpieces.

Learning Russian opens the door to understanding not only the language but also the culture, traditions, and history of Russia. Success in mastering it can significantly expand horizons, facilitating international collaboration and knowledge exchange.

During the Russian Literature exam, high school students had five hours to write an essay on a topic approved by the school district. Topics could cover various fields, such as literature, history, philosophy, or current socio-political issues. Examples include "The Main Distinguishing Features of Pushkin and Zhukovsky," "The Crusades and Their Consequences," and "The Influence of Nature on Man and Man on Nature." The main requirements for the essay were literacy, logic, and clarity of presentation. Such exams contributed to the development of analytical skills and the ability to express one's ideas logically.

Mathematics is one of the fundamental sciences that studies numbers, shapes, structures, and change. This discipline covers a wide range of topics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and statistics. The importance of mathematics is evident in various fields, such as physics, economics, engineering, and computer science. It helps in solving practical problems, analyzing data, and optimizing processes. Furthermore, mathematics develops logical thinking and analytical skills, making it an indispensable tool in the modern world. Studying mathematics fosters critical thinking and the ability to work with abstract concepts, which is useful not only in scientific work but also in everyday life.

The mathematics test included only four problems, but their complexity generated considerable discussion. Dissatisfied participants pointed to the need to simplify the tasks so that they are accessible to students with an average level of preparation. Here is an example of one of the problems:

The problem of paying a certain sum of money using five- and two-kopeck coins requires a solution. Data on the diameters of the coins are expressed through the roots of the equation: lg20x - ½lg(220x - 117) = 1 - lg5. Assuming the centers of the coins are aligned and the coins touch, the total length of this line is one foot. It is necessary to determine the amount of money that should be paid in this situation.

This task examines logarithms, geometry, and Diophantine equations, which are not included in modern school curricula. The purpose of this task is to comprehensively assess students' knowledge of various areas of mathematics. This approach helps determine the level of assimilation of the material covered and promotes the development of analytical thinking.

Gymnasiums independently chose the format of the exam: one day, lasting five hours, or splitting it into two days. If the second option was chosen, on the first day, students devoted two to three hours to solving problems in algebra and arithmetic, and on the second day the exam was in geometry and trigonometry. This approach allowed for a more efficient distribution of time and reduced the workload on students, providing them with the opportunity to better prepare for each subject.

Classical languages ​​play an important role in the development of languages ​​and cultures. They form the foundational elements of modern languages ​​and also possess significant historical and cultural significance. Classical languages, such as Latin and Greek, have had a profound influence on literature, philosophy, and science. Studying these languages ​​fosters an understanding of cultural heritage and aids in mastering modern languages, as many of them have borrowed words and grammatical structures from classical languages. Furthermore, classical languages ​​develop critical thinking and analytical skills, making their study useful for students in a variety of fields. In today's world, knowledge of classical languages ​​opens new horizons for scientific research and cultural enrichment. It may seem unusual today that children were forced to study extinct languages ​​such as Latin. However, in the past, this was considered an important step in stimulating intellectual development and broadening students' knowledge. Latin played a key role in the educational system, as many academic disciplines were taught in this language at universities. Knowledge of Latin allowed students to gain a deeper understanding of classical literature, philosophy, and science, thereby broadening their cultural and scholarly horizons.

Ancient languages ​​such as Latin and Ancient Greek posed a significant barrier for graduates of realschule schools seeking to enter universities. Although the education at these schools was high-quality, it did not cover these languages. Therefore, graduates had to resort to tutoring to prepare for entrance exams and successfully continue their studies at higher education institutions. This underscores the importance of studying the classical languages ​​for subsequent academic careers and confirms their role in the educational system.

The exam assignment in Latin and Ancient Greek was called extemporalia, which means "unprepared" in Latin. The essence of the assignment was that students had to translate a text into Russian without prior preparation. The use of dictionaries, textbooks, and reference books was strictly prohibited. This exam format emphasized language proficiency and the ability to translate quickly, an essential skill for students of classical languages.

Here are short excerpts from texts planned for translation from Latin and Greek. These texts may contain important historical and cultural aspects that should be preserved in the translation to ensure accuracy and a deep understanding of the original. Translating from Latin and Greek requires attention to the nuances of the language to convey not only the meaning but also the atmosphere of the text.

In ancient times, Roman senators often brought their underage sons with them to sessions. This allowed the young heirs to become familiar with the process of public administration and develop an understanding of political processes. Attending the debates shaped their skills necessary for future public service. This approach contributed to the education of a new generation of politicians and the strengthening of the traditions of governance in Rome.

Alexander the Great did not succumb to flattering words, which has led to the mistakes of many historians who describe his exploits in a panegyric style. These authors hoped for generous rewards for their laudatory works, but their expectations were in vain. Historical evidence shows that Alexander's true glory lay not in flattery, but in his outstanding achievements and leadership qualities.

In 1877, maturity tests were conducted in the Russian Empire, which became an important stage in the development of the educational system. These exams reflected the level of students' preparation and their readiness for further education. The publication "Modern Chronicle" of the Journal of the Ministry of Public Education examines in detail the circumstances and results of these tests.

A. Zabulionis, in his work "On Maturity Tests in the Russian Empire in the 19th Century. The Quality of Education in Eurasia," analyzes the impact of these exams on the educational process and their role in shaping educational quality standards. Maturity tests became an integral part of the educational system, providing an assessment of students' knowledge and abilities.

Thus, these examinations not only contributed to raising educational standards but also played a significant role in the social and cultural development of the society of the time.

Over time, the importance of ancient languages ​​diminished, replaced by increasing attention to the study of French and German. This change reflects the evolution of educational priorities and cultural exchanges, where modern languages ​​are becoming key for international communication and professional advancement.

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All other tests were administered orally. A list of questions included in the exam papers was provided in advance. This allowed students to better prepare for the exams and become familiar with the main topics that would be tested.

Students selected tickets and answered the questions contained within. Each student was interviewed by the teacher of the corresponding subject. After completing their answer, other members of the committee could ask additional questions, which contributed to a deeper understanding of the topic and an assessment of their knowledge.

How grades were assigned

The first system for assessing the performance of gymnasium students was introduced in 1837. It was based on a five-point scale, which allowed for an objective assessment of students' knowledge and skills. This system became the basis for the further development of assessment methods in educational institutions and played an important role in the formation of educational standards. The five-point scale provided a clear distinction between levels of academic performance, which contributed to more effective teaching and the identification of students' strengths and weaknesses. While grading systems have evolved over the years, the foundations laid in 1837 continue to influence education today.

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• "1" meant poor performance;
• "2" meant mediocre;
• "3" meant adequate;
• "4" meant good;
• "5" meant excellent.

The Ministry of Public Education introduced clear criteria for objectively assessing student performance. This made it possible to distinguish between grades such as a "C" and a "C." and a "D", which ensured a fairer and more transparent grading system.

The number 2 is assigned to those who understand the material covered sufficiently, answer questions, but do so inconsistently and sometimes not completely. They may express their thoughts vaguely. The number 1 is assigned to those who have not mastered a significant part of the subject being studied, answer inconsistently and often retell information from memory, make many mistakes and do so unclearly. It is important to note that such grades reflect the level of understanding and assimilation of knowledge, which can help in the further development and improvement of the educational process.

The text is based on the source "Rules for testing in district schools and gymnasiums", approved by the Minister of Public Education on December 8, 1837. This document set out the basic provisions and requirements for conducting tests in educational institutions of the Russian Empire, which significantly influenced the education system of that time. The Ministry of Public Education's journal contains detailed guidelines for organizing examinations, as well as criteria for assessing student knowledge. A. Zabulionis's study, "On Maturity Tests in the Russian Empire in the 19th Century," analyzes these rules in detail and their impact on the quality of education in Eurasia. Assessing students' knowledge and skills was not only an important stage in their educational process but also reflected general trends in the development of the country's educational system.

The assessment of oral examinations often depends on the teacher's subjective attitude toward the student, despite established criteria. This can affect the fairness of grades and the level of trust in the assessment system. It is necessary to strive for more objective assessment methods that will minimize the influence of personal preferences and ensure equal conditions for all students.

Examiners were often strict in their assessments, and low grades, such as failing grades, were quite common. Receiving such a grade could disqualify a graduate from receiving a certificate if it was given in subjects such as the Law of God, Russian literature, Latin and Greek, arithmetic, and algebra. In other cases, the main requirement was achieving an average grade of at least C in all subjects. This emphasizes the importance of thorough preparation and understanding of key subjects for successful completion of the educational process and receiving a certificate.

The grading system effectively had a two-point structure: satisfactory or unsatisfactory. This state of affairs suited students, as they could focus on meeting the minimum requirements. Bs and As were awarded only to those whose level of knowledge exceeded the standard curriculum. Thus, the system rewarded only outstanding achievements, leaving the majority of students within the basic grades.

Obtaining a certificate was a difficult task for many. In 1877, out of 1,776 candidates, 1,449 passed the exams, representing 81.6%. Thus, 18.4% failed the test. The highest failure rates were observed in mathematics, Russian, and Latin. External students, as a rule, failed the exams much more often than gymnasium students. This underscores the high demands on the knowledge and skills necessary for successful completion of the curriculum.

There was no provision for appealing exam results. Gymnasium students who failed the exam on the first attempt had the opportunity to retake it the following year.

Despite the strict grading system, there were some medalists among the graduates. In 1877, 83 students received a gold medal, and 103 received a silver medal. To receive a gold medal, it was necessary to have excellent grades in ancient languages ​​and mathematics, as well as an average grade of at least 4.5 in all other subjects. A silver medal was awarded for two A's in the same subjects and an average score of at least 4. In addition, medal winners were required to demonstrate exemplary behavior.

The issue of subjectivity in the assessment of the Unified State Exam becomes relevant using the example of verification Essays in Russian. The assessment of written assignments often depends on the opinion of experts, which can lead to differences in scores. Subjective factors, such as personal preferences and interpretations, can influence the results. This raises discussions about the need for greater objectivity in the assessment process. It may be worth considering the introduction of additional criteria or automated assessment systems to minimize the human factor and ensure a fairer and more transparent assessment.

Read also about how new assessment approaches can change the perception of exams and affect the quality of education.

What was the examination procedure?

A special commission, headed by the principal of the educational institution, oversaw the organization of exams in each gymnasium. The commission also included a subject teacher and representatives of the educational district. This ensured the objectivity and transparency of the examination process, as well as compliance with established educational standards.

Exam assignments were developed by members of the examination committees, and were not imposed from above. All assignments met strict formal criteria. In particular, it was forbidden to use problems that high school students had already solved during their studies. This ensured the fairness and relevance of the exams, allowing for the assessment of students' actual knowledge and skills.

Exam assignments were sent to the trustee of the educational district, who approved one of the proposed versions. Approved assignments were returned to the educational institutions in sealed envelopes. These envelopes were to be opened exclusively in the presence of students and committee members immediately before the start of the exam, which ensured the transparency and fairness of the process.

Final and transfer exams were held at the gymnasium, where the most spacious premises, such as the gymnasium, were chosen for their organization. This ensured that each student could be seated at a separate table. Throughout the exam, students were under constant observation: one observer was assigned to every ten students. All examiners, including the principal of the gymnasium, were also supervised. This approach ensured the fairness and transparency of the examination process.

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For mathematics exams, students were allowed to bring only logarithmic tables. All necessary writing materials, including sheets of paper with the gymnasium stamp, were provided on site. During the exam, only one student was allowed to leave the classroom at a time. If necessary, the examinee handed over their papers to the invigilator, who recorded the exact time of the student's absence. Such strict adherence to the rules ensured order and organization during the examination process.

A protocol was kept throughout the probationary period.

For any violation of the rules, the student faced expulsion from the exam. A retry attempt was possible only after a year. Students who committed further violations during their second attempt lost the right to take the exam.

So how did it work—nobody cheated?

Despite the fact that cheating on exams did occur, commission members often preferred to ignore it. Cases of cheating in gymnasiums are frequently described in memoirs, journalism, and fiction. However, official documents of examination commissions record only a few such cases. This indicates that, despite the prevalence of this practice, it did not receive the attention it deserved from educational institutions.

Students often resorted to cheat sheets, copying from peers, and prompting from teachers. Gymnasium directors sometimes used clever methods, including bribes, offering parents bets on their children's successful passing of exams. This practice highlights existing problems in the education system and the need for greater integrity and transparency in the educational process.

In 1899, a blatant case of violation of matriculation regulations occurred at a gymnasium in the Oryol province. This incident was recorded in official documents and became the subject of discussion. The event attracted the attention of both local authorities and the public, raising questions about the integrity and transparency of the educational system of the time. Such cases highlight the importance of adhering to norms and standards in examinations, which is still relevant in the modern educational process.

During the Latin exam, seven gymnasium students were caught translating a text word for word identically to the textbook. Despite this, the members of the examination committee decided to overlook the violation, considering it accidental. However, the gymnasium director, who opposed the committee's decision, began spreading rumors that the caught students would not be admitted to future exams. As a result, one of the offenders attempted to blackmail the principal, claiming to have received information about the exam topic from the principal's son.

Despite the scandal, the story did not entail serious consequences for either the gymnasium or its students. Overall, the system showed more understanding and leniency towards students than strictness. Members of the examination committees, noticing cases of cheating, preferred to keep a low profile in order to avoid additional checks and unnecessary attention to their work.

Academic dishonesty has become a global problem affecting many countries and educational institutions. It continues to grow, causing serious concerns among educational institutions and society as a whole. This problem requires attention and effort to solve, as the consequences can be devastating both for students and for the quality of education as a whole.

How to enter universities

The main goal of maturity tests was to confirm the right of a gymnasium student to continue his or her studies at a university. These exams served as an important stage in assessing students' knowledge and skills, as well as their readiness for higher education. Successful completion of the tests provided gymnasium students with the opportunity to enter higher education institutions and continue their educational path.

The curricula and certificates of Russian gymnasiums were harmonized with European standards. This allowed graduates from Russia to easily enter universities in Europe.

The procedure for admission to Russian universities in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries underwent significant changes. In various decades, gymnasium graduates could enter with certificates, without taking additional entrance exams. However, there were also periods when applicants took the exams twice. These changes reflected not only educational reforms, but also social, political, and cultural trends of the time, which underscores the importance of studying the history of higher education in Russia.

Until 1863, the only basis for exemption from university entrance exams was an excellent gymnasium certificate. At the same time, even certificates with lower grades gave gymnasium graduates certain advantages over applicants who had not attended gymnasiums. The former could take a reduced list of subjects depending on their faculty, while the latter were required to complete the full course of examinations. This created unequal conditions for admission to higher education institutions.

In 1863, a new regulation was established, according to which all gymnasium graduates who had reached the age of 17 and possessed a certificate could apply to universities. This meant that excellent grades were no longer a mandatory requirement for admission. However, universities retained the right to conduct their own examinations if necessary, which provided additional oversight over the quality of applicants. This approach contributed to an increase in the number of students and expanded access to higher education, which in turn influenced the educational and cultural level of society.

In fact, the admissions process was determined by the rules of each university. Educational institutions preferred re-examinations, both written and oral, due to a lack of confidence in the level of knowledge offered by various gymnasiums, as well as the strict requirements of gymnasium examinations. The only exception was graduates of gymnasiums located within the university's academic district, whose final examinations were attended by representatives of that institution. In this case, gymnasium final examinations were effectively equivalent to entrance examinations.

The set of examinations required varied depending on the chosen faculty. Moscow and Kiev universities also required an entrance essay.

In 1873, by decree of Alexander II, both gymnasium graduates and those who had not attended gymnasiums but had received a matriculation certificate were exempt from re-examinations. This decision confirmed their level of knowledge, equal to that of a gymnasium. The reform led to the unification of gymnasium education and established a strict examination system. It's also worth noting that re-testing at universities took a significant amount of time, which caused dissatisfaction among students and faculty. Thus, changes in the education system have helped simplify the admissions process and improve the quality of education.

The number of people wishing to study at the capital's universities significantly exceeded the number of applicants to provincial educational institutions. As a result, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kiev universities held matriculation competitions, while provincial universities in the late 1880s and early 1890s, due to a shortage of students, simplified the admissions process for seminarians. This demonstrates the differences in educational opportunities and accessibility of higher education between the centers and the regions.

In 1899, the Minister of Public Education, Bogolepov, initiated a circular aimed at equalizing the number of students at various educational institutions. This document encouraged gymnasium students to enroll in universities located in their educational districts. For example, graduates of Kazan gymnasiums were recommended to continue their education at Kazan University. This decision caused discontent among both applicants and their parents. However, the system of binding to educational districts was only abolished in 1906. During this time, graduates found ways to circumvent the existing restrictions and enroll in the educational institutions of their choice.

In their senior years, gymnasium students were transferred to the districts where they planned to continue their education. In these districts, they also took university entrance exams. An alternative path was to enroll in the history and philology departments, which were considered less prestigious. Nevertheless, classical gymnasiums provided the best preparation for admission to these departments. To attract students, faculties were forced to accept graduates from different districts. Later, students could easily transfer to more desirable departments, which made the educational process more flexible.

In 1905-1906, amid social unrest, seminarians were allowed to enroll in universities without additional exams, similar to gymnasium students. For graduates of real and commercial schools, passing an exam in Latin was sufficient. However, in 1909, the rules changed, and graduates of other educational institutions other than gymnasiums were again required to complete the full course of matriculation tests at gymnasiums in order to enter universities. These changes in the educational system reflect the social and cultural processes of the time.

Universities at that time were more liberal than the authorities, striving to accept everyone with a high school diploma, regardless of social status. However, non-gymnasium students were admitted primarily on a residual basis, after graduates of classical gymnasiums had been admitted. Statistics show that approximately half of Realschule graduates failed to enter higher education institutions on their first attempt.

Since 1867, graduates of Realschule schools who successfully completed their studies were given the opportunity to enroll in universities if the Ministry of Public Education recognized their educational institutions as equal to gymnasiums in terms of educational level. This decision was made for each educational institution individually. However, graduates of the Realschule (Real Schools) had a special requirement: they were initially enrolled as "outside auditors." After a year, they were required to pass an exam in Latin, which was not taught in the Realschule. Only after successfully passing this exam could they become full university students. This rule emphasized the importance of a classical education and the need for additional knowledge for admission to higher education.

The modern university admissions system faces a number of issues that require attention and change. Many applicants experience difficulties due to the complex exam structure and the large amount of information that must be absorbed. This creates stress and increases competition among students. Furthermore, a lack of transparency in the assessment criteria and various admissions procedures can lead to dissatisfaction and distrust in the system.

It is important to consider how the admissions process can be improved to make it more accessible and fair. Discussing these issues is necessary to improve the quality of education and ensure equal opportunities for all applicants.

Read also: What's wrong with the modern university admissions system? 5 high-voltage zones.

The country saw a growing need for technical specialists, in addition to civil servants and doctors. In the second half of the 19th century, specialized institutes, such as engineering and agronomy institutes, began to open to complement traditional universities. These educational institutions provided a modern education focused on practical skills and industrial needs, which contributed to the development of scientific and technological progress in the country.

In 1865, the Petrovskaya Agricultural and Forestry Academy, now known as the Russian State Agrarian University - Moscow Agricultural Academy named after K. A. Timiryazev, was founded. In 1868, the Moscow Vocational School was transformed into the Imperial Moscow Technical School, which became one of the first higher specialized educational institutions in the country. Today it is the famous Bauman Moscow State Technical University, or simply "Baumanka". In 1899, the Imperial Saint Petersburg Polytechnic University, now known as Peter the Great Saint Petersburg Polytechnic University, was opened. By the end of the 19th century, 11 higher technical educational institutions operated in Russia, with over seven thousand students enrolled. These universities played a key role in the development of technical education and science in the country.

Many people strive to master promising professions, and one of the reasons for this is the high competition in classical universities. Graduates of vocational schools often choose technical universities because they find it easier to enroll. This makes technical specialties more accessible and attractive to young people, opening the door to in-demand professions in the labor market.

The education system was initially structured so that gymnasiums prepared students for classical universities, while real schools were designed to train specialists for technical universities. However, this system failed to take into account that gymnasium students might have an interest in engineering, while real schools students might have a passion for the humanities. As a result, both groups, due to class restrictions, ended up in educational institutions that did not match their true aspirations, but merely matched their capabilities.

In 1897, technical universities in St. Petersburg faced record competition. 1,013 people applied to the St. Petersburg Technological Institute for 167 places. This demonstrates the high interest in technical education in the then capital of Russia.

Specialized universities set their own admissions rules. In some cases, high school students are subject to certificate competitions similar to those used at classical universities. In other cases, high school students are required to take entrance exams along with other applicants. This allows universities to select the most prepared students and build a strong academic staff.

Only graduates who received gold medals could enroll in the shipbuilding department of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute. Since 1901, the Institute of Railway Engineers has had a mixed system of entrance examinations. The entrance score was made up of six grades: two from the secondary education certificate, regardless of whether it was a gymnasium or a classical school, and four grades for exams in physics, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. This system took into account both academic preparation and exam results, which facilitated a more objective selection of students.

The content of exam assignments at specialized institutes often exceeds the curriculum used in regular schools and classical gymnasiums. This circumstance has contributed to a significant demand for tutoring services and specialized collections of exam problems. As a result, students and their parents began actively seeking additional sources of preparation to successfully cope with exam requirements. Tutors offer individual lessons, which allows for more effective mastery of complex topics and increases the chances of passing exams.

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The Imperial St. Petersburg Polytechnic University conducts a draw for applicants in addition to the certificate competition due to the high demand for education. This decision ensures a fair selection process among a large number of applicants to the educational institution.

The percentage of gymnasium graduates admitted to the specified educational institutions ranged from 17% to 27.8%. This demonstrates the significant interest and preparedness of gymnasium students for further education at higher educational institutions.

Technical universities offered the opportunity for non-competitive admission, which often depended on the influential connections of the applicants' parents. In some educational institutions, the proportion of students accepted under this scheme could reach 30-50%. This created an unequal environment for admission and raised questions regarding the transparency and fairness of the selection process.

About 30-39% of applicants were admitted to various universities, both classical and specialized. In 1897, 72% of Russian applicants to universities failed to pass the competitive selection. These statistics include not only the current year's graduates but also those who applied in previous years, as many applicants made multiple attempts. It's worth noting that in the event of a tie, those who had previously applied multiple times to the same university had an advantage. Teachers noted that the main problem with the existing system is the low level of preparation of applicants. This is confirmed by the fact that only half of first-year students successfully transfer to their second year. This is due to the fact that high school students quickly forget the material covered in class. Furthermore, there is often a discrepancy between the grades on their certificates and the students' actual knowledge. Graduates from provincial high schools are particularly lagging behind, highlighting the need to improve educational standards and prepare applicants. University professors expressed doubts about the objectivity of the grades provided by high schools, leading to the opinion that the competitive selection of certificates was a sham. As a result, various proposals arose, which, however, were not implemented. Among them, one was the deprivation of privileges for gymnasium students when entering universities, in order to ensure equal conditions for all applicants during examinations. The option of admitting everyone with subsequent screening based on the results of first-year transfer examinations was also considered.

In 1896, an attempt was made to centralize the admissions campaign to technical universities. A special commission of the Ministry of Public Education developed a unified program of entrance examinations for all such educational institutions, which was approved. In addition, it was proposed to create a single center for conducting these examinations, which would allow applicants to take tests at several universities simultaneously. However, this proposal was not implemented. Thus, this became the prototype for the idea of ​​​​the Unified State Examination (USE).

After the 1917 Revolution, a new era began in Russia, including in the field of education. This period was marked by significant changes in the educational system aimed at democratization and accessibility of knowledge for the general population. The most important tasks were the elimination of illiteracy and the creation of a network of educational institutions that met the new demands of society. Education became a tool for the formation of a new person and the upbringing of citizens capable of building a socialist society. These changes had a profound impact on all spheres of life, including culture and science, paving the way for new ideas and approaches to education.

The sources used in this article play a key role in ensuring the reliability of the information presented. They help the reader gain a deeper understanding of the topic and confirm the facts. It is important to rely on authoritative and relevant sources to ensure high-quality content. In this article, we analyzed various studies, articles, and books that cover the topic under consideration, allowing readers to gain a comprehensive understanding and substantiated conclusions. By using verified sources, we strive to provide readers with useful and informative information.

• E. Yu. Zharova. "Examinations at Universities of the Russian Empire in the First Half of the 19th Century." Journal "Problems of Education."
• E. Yu. Zharova. "On entrance examinations to universities of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries." Journal "Bulletin of Perm University." Series "History."
• A. Zabulionis. "On maturity tests in the Russian Empire in the 19th century." Journal "Quality of Education in Eurasia."
• A. Zabulionis. "On examinations in gymnasiums of the Russian Empire." Journal "Quality of Education in Eurasia."
• A. I. Eremin. «“If the said evil is really ineradicable...”: a dispute at the pedagogical council of the Oryol boys’ gymnasium about cheating during maturity tests (1903)». Journal «New Historical Bulletin».
• A. I. Eremin. «Maturity tests in the Russian classical gymnasium: officials, teachers, gymnasium students, documentation (late 19th - early 20th centuries)». Journal «New Historical Bulletin».
• A. I. Eremin. «“Blackmail, unprecedented in Russia”: a case during maturity tests at the Oryol boys’ gymnasium (1899)». Journal «New Historical Bulletin».
• A. N. Shevelev. «School and University in Prerevolutionary Petersburg: On the Problem of Interaction». Journal «Bulletin of KSU im. N. A. Nekrasov».
• V. D. Polezhaev. "Transformation of the System for Forming the Contingent of Students of Technical Universities in Russia in the 19th - Early 20th Centuries." Magazine "Teacher of the 21st Century".

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