The story of a peasant who created courses in Tsarist Russia

Contents:

• Chernyaev's education and his path to creating his own courses
• Conditions for admission to the Chernyaev courses for students
• Content and teaching methods in the courses
• Chernyaev's path to creating a full-fledged real school
• Reasons for the closure of the courses and their disappearance from public consciousness

Imagine this: 1907, St. Petersburg. A future famous professor and founder of a significant field of science is on the horizon, but at that time he is just an eighteen-year-old boy who comes to the capital from a small village in the Vologda province. His cherished dream is to become a university student. However, for him, this is equivalent to what a flight into space means to us today. The fact is that he never attended a gymnasium, and it would be extremely difficult for him to independently prepare for the exams that covered the entire gymnasium curriculum—a mandatory requirement for admission to an institution of higher education. He didn't speak Latin, didn't know modern foreign languages, and had no skills in mathematics.

This young man was born into a family of poor peasants. He lost his mother in childhood and, from an early age, wandered from village to village with his brother and father, who often went on binges, earning a living by crafting.

Despite his nomadic life, the boy managed to complete his secondary education, thanks in large part to his insatiable thirst for knowledge. He eagerly devoured every book he encountered in each new village, which furthered his education. His studies at the village school were combined with work, and he demonstrated such outstanding abilities that after graduation he was invited to the nearest teachers' seminary, where he was awarded a scholarship.

In short, by the age of eighteen, this young man from a disadvantaged village had achieved significant results. However, they were not enough to enter university. The next step on his path to his dream was attending the Chernyaev Courses in St. Petersburg—a very popular evening school for adults. Here, he could fill in gaps in his knowledge from the gymnasium curriculum and prepare for the matriculation exam, which in turn opened the door to higher education. The courses in question were organized by a fellow countryman of our hero's, also from the Vologda province and descended from a peasant family. His name was Alexander Sergeevich Chernyaev (1873–1916). Our hero's name is Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin. He would later become the founder of integral sociology and one of the first theorists of social stratification and mobility, and would also play a key role in the creation of the sociology department at Harvard. However, before achieving these significant achievements, he had to overcome many difficulties. In 1907, he was enrolled in Chernyaev's courses, where tuition was free, and spent three semesters there, while simultaneously earning a living by tutoring. Having successfully passed the exams, he realized his long-held dream of entering university.

Pitirim decided not to enroll in Chernyaev's courses directly, but first approached one of the instructors, Kallistrat Zhakov, a renowned philosopher and literary critic of his time. Zhakov could also be considered a fellow countryman of Pitirim's, as he was born into a peasant family in the Vologda province and belonged to the Komi people. His native area was proud of the fact that he was the first Komi representative to be awarded the title of professor.

Later, Zhakov's wife recalled how Pitirim Sorokin appeared at their door: "Before me stood a young man from the village, dressed in a Russian shirt and holding a small knapsack. When I asked who he was looking for, he replied that he had come from the Komi people and would like to meet with a Komi professor. I asked where he had left his luggage, to which the young man pointed to his knapsack and said, 'I have everything here.'" When I asked if he had the means to live, he replied with a smile, "Yes, I still have fifty kopecks left."

As Sorokin himself noted, evening classes became the impetus for his scientific work and contributed to the expansion of his knowledge in the natural sciences. During this period, he also entered the circle of St. Petersburg's intelligentsia, which allowed him to actively engage in cultural self-education—attending museums, theatrical productions, concerts, and various clubs and societies.

Pitirim Sorokin's fate vividly illustrates the importance of these courses in a context of widespread inequality, affecting both full-fledged school education and higher education, which often depended on the inadequacy of knowledge acquired in school. For young people from the lower social strata who were striving for education, such courses were almost the only way to prepare for university entrance exams, and this process was often available at a low cost or even completely free, as was the case with Sorokin.

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Pitirim Sorokin wasn't the only one to achieve significant success after studying at the Chernyaev Courses. These courses also significantly influenced the career of Nikolai Kondratiev, who became a prominent economist and Sorokin's friend and colleague. Kondratiev is known as the founder of the theory of cyclical processes in the global economy. Among the course's graduates are also the Belarusian poet and translator Yanka Kupala, known as Ivan Lutsevich, and Mikhail Artamonov, a historian and archaeologist who pioneered the study of the history of the Khazars and directed the Hermitage from 1951 to 1964.

Chernyaev's Education and His Path to Creating His Own Courses

Alexander Chernyaev, the founder of the educational courses, was born in a village to a family of peasants, just like Pitirim Sorokin. He received his first education at a parochial school. At a young age, his parents decided to send him to St. Petersburg to earn money—there he worked in hotels and restaurants, serving as an errand boy and doorman. This time was a test for him; he encountered various situations and often received criticism and slaps.

Like Pitirim Sorokin, Chernyaev demonstrated an insatiable thirst for knowledge from an early age, despite the difficult circumstances of his childhood. He read a lot and strove to learn more. He was fortunate: the director of a gymnasium in the capital noticed his curiosity and decided to support his pursuit of self-education. Although he was unable to enroll Alexander in his gymnasium, the director took on the responsibility of teaching him as part of the gymnasium curriculum. Thanks to this mentor, Alexander developed a deep respect for education that lasted a lifetime, and he dedicated himself to helping others gain knowledge. He began his teaching career at the age of 17, becoming a teacher in a rural area.

At that time, graduating from a specialized educational institution wasn't necessary to become a teacher. Graduating from a regular school, not a gymnasium, was sufficient to qualify for teaching in primary schools. To work in more prestigious schools, it was possible to independently prepare for and pass the teacher's exam, which is what Chernyaev did; Tsiolkovsky chose a similar path.

In 1894, Chernyaev was appointed to an educational institution located in the village of Kologrivo, now part of the Leningrad Region. He soon convinced local residents to construct a new, more comfortable stone building for the school. At this institution, Alexander Chernyaev created an excellent library and also organized workshops where local artisans taught children various crafts. He also planted an orchard, established an experimental apiary, and opened a boarding school for students from remote villages. At the time, Chernyaev actively implemented and promoted innovative pedagogical approaches, criticizing traditional schools and their curricula. He believed that the primary goal of education was to develop children's own worldview, logical thinking, and willpower. He also emphasized the need for visual and practical instruction: for example, the study of geometry for peasants should not be done in abstract terms, but through concrete examples related to land surveying. Chernyaev also expressed the opinion that Russian fiction too often portrayed failures, which negatively impacted the development of resilient characters capable of overcoming difficulties in children and adolescents. He insisted on presenting more examples of true heroes who achieved success. For its time, this was a very bold statement, reminiscent of modern ideas about developing a growth mindset.

The school, founded thanks to the efforts of Alexander Chernyaev, operated until the start of the Great Patriotic War. He also initiated the construction of a school and library near his home village of Semenzovo. However, realizing the impossibility of realizing his ambitious plans in the village, he returned to the capital in 1900. In Kologrivo, bright and long-lasting memories of him have been preserved.

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In pre-revolutionary Russia, progressive educational institutions for the general population were created by various public figures and educators. Among these initiators are prominent figures who sought to make education accessible to peasants and workers. These schools were typically based on the principles of public education and included elements of practical training, allowing students not only to acquire theoretical knowledge but also to apply it in everyday life. Reformers, who recognized the need for education to improve living conditions and raise the level of consciousness of the people, played a key role in this process.

In St. Petersburg, Chernyaev, who was already 27 years old, became an auditor at both the Archaeological Institute and the Physics and Mathematics Department of the local university. This circumstance facilitated his acquaintance with a number of outstanding scientists.

During his student years, Alexander Chernyaev, together with like-minded individuals, founded courses for adults. According to biologist Alexander Genkel, who participated in their creation and operation, these courses were "not so much educational as cultural in nature." The course opened on September 1, 1902, in St. Petersburg, and classes were held at 3–5 Tatarsky Lane.

In its first year, the courses attracted only one class of eight students, typical of many educational programs of the time, which faced a shortage of participants and often closed as a result. However, by the second year, the number of students had increased to 75, and several famous figures had joined the project. In the 1907/1908 academic year, when Pitirim Sorokin enrolled in the courses, the total number of students increased to 800, and the reputation of the Chernyaev Courses began to spread throughout the country.

“The thirst for knowledge is a fundamental human need,” noted Chernyaev, “let those who strive for knowledge be directed to this source, regardless of age, footwear, or social status…” This statement embodies the central concept of his educational courses—to provide support to those who thirst for knowledge but lack the means to acquire it.

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The need for knowledge is an internal human motivation to strive to gain new knowledge and understanding of the world around us. This thirst for learning can manifest itself in various forms - from simple curiosity to a deep interest in certain areas of science or art.

The difference in the level of this need in different people can be due to many factors. Firstly, individual personality traits play a significant role: some people are naturally more inquisitive and open to new experiences, while others may be more skeptical and less inclined to explore.

Furthermore, the strength of this need is influenced by social and cultural factors. Upbringing and the educational environment can shape or stifle an interest in learning. People who grew up in an environment conducive to exploration tend to exhibit higher levels of curiosity. Conversely, those who experienced limitations and a lack of incentive to learn may experience a lesser need for learning.

Thus, the combination of personal characteristics and external circumstances forms a unique level of cognitive activity in each person.

Conditions for admission to the Chernyaev Courses for students

A brochure published in 1909 containing the admission requirements stated that persons of either gender who had reached the age of 17, regardless of their religious affiliation and social status, could apply for the courses.

Students were divided into classes depending on their level of preparation - with higher classes, the requirements also increased. To enter the first grade, it was sufficient to have a document confirming completion of a public school, which provided a basic education and taught the basics of reading and arithmetic, or a certificate of attendance at a preparatory or first grade of a secondary school. Those who lacked any official certificates from state or private educational institutions had to pass entrance examinations, after which they were assigned to classes based on their knowledge.

In practice, this meant that anyone with at least basic reading and writing skills could enroll in the evening school. This applied to both those who, for whatever reason, had not completed their education, as well as those who did not have a formal diploma at all, but studied either under a private tutor or independently. Thus, the student body was quite diverse. Pitirim Sorokin mentions in his autobiography, "The Long Way": "Among the less capable and mediocre students, there were also truly talented individuals. Some of them later achieved significant success in science, literature, art, and politics."

To allow students to study outside of working hours, courses were held on weekday evenings. Classes for the first grade were held from 7:00 PM to 10:00 PM, and for the rest of the classes, from 6:00 PM to 11:00 PM. Sundays were reserved for practical lessons in natural sciences and readings on social studies.

The educational process was fee-based, and the price per year of study fluctuated depending on various factors.

• The cost of tuition in the first grade is 31 rubles 25 kopecks, while classes with additional courses in German, French and Latin will cost 49 rubles 25 kopecks.
• 55 rubles 25 kopecks (equivalent to 73 rubles 25 kopecks taking into account languages) in the second grade;
• In the third grade, when language learning became mandatory, the amount was 83 rubles 25 kopecks.
• 92 rubles 25 kopecks is the amount that fourth-grade students can become familiar with.

For context, it should be noted that the average income of a worker in Russia in 1909 was 238.55 rubles a year, which made the cost of education for representatives of the lower quite significant strata of society. Tuition at a state gymnasium cost 50-60 rubles annually, while at private educational institutions, prices started at least double that amount. However, it is worth clarifying that the Chernyaev Courses offered an intensive education format, where one year of study corresponded to two years in a regular gymnasium. In addition, some students could take advantage of scholarships that helped cover tuition costs (Pitirim Sorokin allegedly received such support). If a student became ill, lost the opportunity to earn money, or left St. Petersburg for work reasons, they did not have to pay tuition for the second semester.

The exact extent to which the courses were able to survive financially remains unknown, but it is likely that the project was unprofitable from an economic standpoint. Typically, such educational initiatives survived thanks to the enthusiasm of their founders and the generosity of well-meaning patrons, and tuition rarely covered all the incurred expenses. This assumption is indirectly confirmed by the fact that, judging by the stories of his contemporaries, Chernyaev was unable to get rich on the courses, and his family did not live in luxury. Behind the outward appearance of a successful and progressive educational institution hid financial difficulties and debts.

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"By its nature, education is a non-commercial area, but there is a desire to turn it into a commercial activity."

Content and methods of teaching in the courses

The main goal of the Chernyaev general education courses in St. Petersburg was to provide students with basic knowledge of secondary education and assist them in entering higher education institutions. As Chernyaev himself noted, the courses were designed "through the study of scientific disciplines to contribute to the formation of a scientific worldview in students."

The courses operated on the basis of the curricula of classical gymnasiums and real schools. It should be clarified that in gymnasium education, the emphasis was on the humanities, such as literature, history, and languages, including ancient languages. However, mathematics also occupied a significant place in the educational process. In contrast, the programs of real schools mainly focused on mathematics, natural and technical sciences, while ancient languages ​​were not taught at all. Gymnasiums were believed to prepare students for university entrance, while real schools prepared students for specialized technical educational institutions. The Chernyaev Courses sought to combine both fields of knowledge. Thus, these courses became the precursors of the famous Shanyavsky People's University, which was founded just six years later.

The curriculum of the Chernyaev Courses covered a wide range of subjects, including Russian language and literature, history and religious education, as well as mathematics, particularly arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Additionally, the program included analytical geometry, cosmography, logic, physics, mineralogy, botany, zoology, physiology, and hygiene. The fundamentals of legislation and foreign languages ​​such as French, German, and Latin were also studied.

Chernyaev made significant efforts to provide the courses with specialized educational and scientific literature, as well as a variety of visual aids. He acquired equipment for zoological research, microscopes, projectors, stereographic images of geography, and also organized a physics office and equipped a tower for astronomical observations. In addition, a natural history museum functioned at the courses.

Read also:

Natural history is a field of knowledge covering the study of living organisms, their environment and interactions in nature. This discipline encompasses aspects of biology, ecology, and zoology, and has evolved over time into various academic subjects.

Over time, natural history has branched into more specialized disciplines. Biology, for example, focused on the study of life and living things, while ecology explores the relationships between organisms and their environment. Zoology, in turn, is a separate branch that studies animals and their behavior, anatomy, and evolution. These sciences, which emerged from natural history, became the basis for a deeper and more detailed understanding of biological processes and interactions in ecosystems.

The curriculum was very intensive and accelerated, comprising four classes. Each of them corresponded to the curriculum covering two grades of a standard children's gymnasium or realschule. Thus, it was possible to master the traditional eight-year program in just four years, twice as fast as usual.

In the senior classes, the content and style of lectures were not significantly different from those taught in the first two years of university. According to Alexander Chernyaev, this method smoothed the transition from school to university and facilitated a more informed choice of department for admission. In addition to lectures, the curriculum also included practical classes.

Chernyaev managed to assemble an outstanding faculty. It included faculty from the St. Petersburg Imperial University and other higher education institutions, including renowned scholars. These included the psychiatrist and physiologist Vladimir Bekhterev, the bibliographer and literary historian Semyon Vengerov, the academician and physiologist Nikolai Vvedensky, the philosopher and literary scholar Kallistrat Zhakov, as well as the historians and sociologists Nikolai Kareev and Maxim Kovalevsky, the biologist Alexander Genkel, and many others.

Chernyaev was convinced that only qualified lecturers could hold the audience's attention during the courses. He himself taught Russian, and early in his career also studied history.

The exceptional teaching staff and thorough teaching method contributed to the rapid growth in popularity of the Chernyaev Courses among young people.

In his memoirs, Pitirim Sorokin noted that "participation in lectures and classes was not mandatory. The number of tests and exams was small, but the knowledge requirements were high and strict. This educational model resembled that which existed in Russian universities before the Revolution and did not include unnecessary formalities and gymnasium subjects, and also freed students from boring mandatory class attendance and other, often useless, “requirements.”

During each term, rehearsal classes were held in all subjects, reminiscent of tests. At the end of the academic year, transfer exams were held. At the end of the fourth grade, students took final exams, based on the results of which they were awarded certificates of completion of the courses.

The students paid attention not only to their studies. Chernyaev actively supported creative endeavors and contributed to the publication of student magazines, personally participating in their editing and publication.

Chernyaev's path to the creation of a full-fledged real school

In 1906, a real school was created on the basis of the courses, which could be attended by young people of both sexes who were unable to attend school for various reasons. In 1916, this school received the status of a state educational institution.

The school employed an individualized approach to education, dividing each class into three groups. This allowed strong students to maintain interest, while those lagging behind received the necessary support. Chernyaev also introduced the use of documentary film for educational purposes, which was quite innovative at the time. In addition to the core academic subjects, the school offered additional, optional courses, such as Latin, which was particularly useful for those wishing to continue their studies at university. Lack of knowledge in this subject often became a serious obstacle to admission, as Latin was taught primarily in gymnasiums and theological seminaries.

Reading biographies of prominent figures played an important role in the educational process. This allowed teenagers, by becoming acquainted with real role models, to gain faith in human capabilities in general, as well as in their own.

Students were regularly surveyed to understand their opinions about the classes - this was also an unusual and innovative approach for that era.

The school had a museum dedicated to human industrial activity, where one could see examples of various industries, and there was also a workshop engaged in the creation of visual educational materials.

At the International Exhibition "The Structure and Arrangement of Schools", held in St. Petersburg in 1912, Chernyaev's school was awarded a silver medal.

Reasons for the closure of the courses and their disappearance from public consciousness

Alexander Chernyaev passed away in 1916, before reaching the age of 43, due to tuberculous meningitis. After his death, Kallistrat Zhakov became the head of the courses; it was to him that the young Pitirim Sorokin turned upon arriving in St. Petersburg.

Due to his considerable work in the administrative sphere and his early death, Chernyaev was unable to embody his pedagogical ideas in book form. This task was taken up by his students and associates, sincerely believing that extensive works would soon be written about Chernyaev, extolling him as one of the founders of modern pedagogy and an outstanding figure in the field of education. However, unfortunately, this never happened.

Already early the following year, the Chernyaev Courses disappeared in the revolutionary whirlwind, and the name of their founder was forgotten for almost a century. However, among the graduates of these courses were individuals who became prominent government figures in Soviet times. For example, Ivan Akulov became the first prosecutor of the USSR, and Mikhail Lopukhin took the post of head of housing construction in the economic department of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Pyotr Baranov was also one of the key founders of the Soviet Air Force. Ideology had a significant impact on this process of neglect. First of all, after the revolution, it became common to avoid discussing the progressive achievements of educational institutions established in the pre-revolutionary period, even if they did not have state status. Furthermore, many individuals associated with the Chernyaev Courses were affiliated with the Socialist Revolutionary Party, one of the main opposition forces to the Bolsheviks. Pitirim Sorokin, also an Socialist Revolutionary, was expelled from the country in 1922, despite his peasant origins, because he was considered a representative of the "bourgeois professoriate." Kallistrat Zhakov, who headed the courses, also belonged to the Socialist Revolutionary Party and wrote an open letter to Lenin harshly criticizing the new order. Chernyaev himself also expressed sympathy for the Socialist Revolutionaries. In conclusion, the repressions that affected many teachers and graduates of the Chernyaev Courses, including communists, in the 1930s had a significant impact.

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