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Find out morePyotr Postnikov: a doctor by vocation and a reluctant diplomat
Peter Postnikov, born around 1660, was the son of Vasily Postnikov, a clerk of the Posolsky Prikaz who served in the diplomatic service and traveled throughout Europe. His father instilled in Peter a love of education and taught him important skills acquired from foreign teachers. This knowledge, including Greek, was highly valued in the Muscovite state, where knowledge of foreign languages opened many opportunities. Pyotr Postnikov became an example of how family values and education influence personal development and career paths.
Thanks to the efforts of his father, young Petya Postnikov was enrolled in the school founded in 1685 at the Epiphany Monastery in Moscow. The following year, the educational institution was moved to the Zaikonospassky Monastery, where the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was created on its foundations. This academy played an important role in the development of education in Russia and became one of the first higher education institutions in the country.
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The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was the first higher education institution in Russia, founded in 1687. It was created to train specialists in philosophy, language, and theology. The Academy played a key role in the development of education and culture in the country, laying the foundation for the further development of higher education.
The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was located in Moscow and attracted students from all over Russia. Both Slavic and Latin were used in the educational process, which facilitated the integration of European knowledge into the Russian educational system. However, in the early 18th century, following the reforms of Peter the Great, the academy was transformed, and its functions were redistributed among new educational institutions. By 1755, with the founding of Moscow University, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy lost its significance and closed. Nevertheless, its legacy lives on in the Russian higher education system, and the ideas conceived at the academy influenced the formation of modern universities. Postnikov's knowledge of Greek, which was primarily the language of instruction, allowed him to become one of the academy's top students. For his achievements, he repeatedly received gold coins as rewards from Patriarchs Joachim and Hadrian. Peter demonstrated outstanding abilities in composing oratory, and in 1687 he was entrusted with writing and delivering the "Sermon on the Nativity of Our Lord..." before Patriarch Joachim. In this work, the student demonstrated not only his eloquence but also a deep understanding of Latin church writings, as academy students were actively involved in copying and translating books during their studies. This confirms Postnikov's high level of preparation and intellectual abilities, which later played a significant role in his career.
In 1691, probably even before completing his studies, Postnikov was hired as a solicitor. At the same time, he studied with the Greek physicians Jacob Pelarino and Ivan Komnenos, which contributed to his passion for medicine. Komnenos, who had received his medical education in Padua, recommended his talented student to also go to Italy to gain serious knowledge in the field of medicine.
Leaving the country without the Tsar's permission was impossible, and Postnikov requested imperial permission to continue his education. In 1692, the young Peter I granted Postnikov the opportunity to travel to the University of Padua and assigned him an annual stipend. During this period, Comnenus, having completed his service in Russia, accompanied his student on his journey and helped him adapt to Italy. He placed Postnikov with his friend, the renowned Greek Catholic professor of canon law, Nicholas Comnenus Papadopoli, which facilitated the successful start of his studies abroad.
The entry regarding Peter Postnikov's enrollment at the University of Padua reads: "Signor Peter Postnikov from Muscovy has been enrolled in the first year." At the university, he studied anatomy, surgery, pharmacy, philosophy, practical medicine, as well as French and Italian, demonstrating significant academic success. In August 1694, just two years after enrolling, he was awarded the title of Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine. This title granted him the rights inherent to professors at European universities—the right to teach and award academic degrees. During this same period, Postnikov was elected as an assessor to the university administration, which underscored his authority and influence within the academic community.
In 1695, Pyotr Postnikov defended his dissertation entitled "Fevers Indicate the Causes of Putrefaction" and received a diploma known as a "privileged charter." This document noted his outstanding qualities, including wit, memory, and eloquence, which met the requirements of a true philosopher and physician. Along with the diploma, he was presented with a gold ring and a teacher's beret.
Postnikov did not stop at receiving a diploma and continued his medical education at the universities of Paris and Leiden.
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The first universities in Europe and Russia emerged in the Middle Ages and played a key role in the formation of the educational system. European universities began to emerge in the 12th and 13th centuries, when students and faculty came together to pursue knowledge in cities such as Bologna and Paris. These institutions became centers of learning, where various sciences, including philosophy, theology, and medicine, developed.
In Russia, the first university, St. Petersburg University, was founded in 1724 by decree of Peter the Great. This event marked the beginning of higher education in the country and reflected Russia's commitment to the development of science and culture. Universities became important institutions promoting scientific research and the training of qualified specialists.
Thus, universities in Europe and Russia became important cultural and educational centers that contributed to the dissemination of knowledge and the development of society.
While living in cities such as Padua, Paris, Brussels, and Leiden, Postnikov regularly wrote letters to Peter the Great, signing himself "Petrushko Posnikov, physician-philosopher." In his letters, he shared important news from Europe with the Tsar. For example, he informed him of the reconciliation between the King of France and the Duke of Savoy and reported on a devastating storm in the English Channel. These letters not only reflected the political situation of the time but also served as a link between Russia and Europe, demonstrating Postnikov's interest in events on the continent.
Postnikov planned to continue his education and learn English and Dutch. However, Tsar Peter had other plans for him: he instructed Postnikov to join the "Grand Embassy" of 1697-1698. His knowledge of the languages and cultural peculiarities of the Europeans made Postnikov an indispensable participant in this journey. As part of the embassy, he served as a translator from French and Greek, handled organizational matters, procured medicines and medical instruments, and studied the work of foreign institutions. Postnikov also recruited doctors and pharmacists for Russian service. In 1697, he visited the office of the famous Dutch physician Ruysch. Ruysch's collection was later purchased by Peter the Great and became the foundation of Russia's first museum, the Kunstkamera. When the embassy was unexpectedly interrupted by the Streltsy revolt, Postnikov was assigned to Vienna as secretary to the diplomat Prokofiy Voznitsyn. Voznitsyn represented Russia at the Karlowitz Peace Congress, which summarized the war between Austria, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Republic of Venice, and Russia, all members of the military alliance known as the Holy League, against the Ottoman Empire. Voznitsyn urged Postnikov to hurry, emphasizing the importance of their mission.
Beware the Tsar's wrath, for you are obliged to attend the Turkish commission, and without you the work cannot be completed. It is impossible to do without your participation, as the matter requires your skills. The Turkish ambassador, the Greek Mavrocordatos, is also interested in this matter. You have been assigned to the commission precisely because you can communicate with him in Greek, Italian, French, and Latin, and he speaks all of these languages. Your language skills make you an indispensable participant in this process.
In his reply, Postnikov stated that he will not be able to come to Vienna in the near future. He plans to first visit Naples to improve his skills in conducting physiological experiments. This decision displeased Voznesen.
You came to Naples to idle away your time, as you wrote in your letter: "to kill living dogs and to give life to the dead." This activity is of no use to us. I urgently warn you: if you are delayed and do not find me in Vienna or elsewhere, know that you will face the wrath of His Imperial Majesty, our gracious sovereign. I will no longer write to you, as a despiser, but will address my letter to another place where your position will be unfavorable. If something unpleasant happens, do not be offended.
The threats influenced Postnikov, and he arrived at the congress in Karlovci, now known as Sremski Karlovci in Serbia. On the day of the armistice, he was given the opportunity to ride in the Russian ambassadors' state carriage as a sign of special favor.
In preparation for the congress, Postnikov translated the Koran into Russian. This was done so that the ambassador could better understand the religious beliefs, traditions, and laws of the Turkish side. In his translation, he relied on the French translation by diplomat and orientalist André du Rieux, which ensured the accuracy and high quality of the work.
After the congress, Postnikov approached Fyodor Golovin, an associate of Peter the Great and head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, asking him not to detain him in diplomatic service. Golovin agreed to grant Postnikov's request. He was allowed to transfer to Amsterdam to purchase medical instruments. At the same time, Postnikov continued to act as a translator, which allowed him to travel to England.
In 1701, Postnikov returned to Russia, where the Tsar allowed him to continue practicing medicine on the condition that he translate documents for the Ambassadorial Prikaz as needed. In the summer of that year, Postnikov accompanied Peter I on a trip to Pskov and Novgorod, serving as a physician and translator. This testifies to the important role Postnikov played in the development of medicine and diplomacy in Russia during that period.
At the end of that year, Postnikov was again sent abroad as Russia's representative to the French court to convey information about events taking place in the country.
To confirm its diplomatic mission, the government was required to send a special letter of credentials, but for almost nine years this did not happen. As a result, Postnikov found himself in the role of an unofficial agent, deprived of a clear program of action. He waited months for replies to his letters from Russia and was constantly short of funds.
He typically conveyed information that was random, belated, and second-hand. He was unable to undertake serious tasks, such as hiring French doctors for Russia or negotiating the release of a detained Russian merchant ship. The lack of official status prevented him from establishing contacts, and therefore no one wanted to communicate with him.
During his career, Postnikov amassed an extensive library devoted to the customs and legal systems of neighboring states. These books could have served as a source of inspiration for Peter I in the process of implementing his reforms.
In 1710, Postnikov returned to his homeland. Two years later, on behalf of the government, he translated from French part of Abraham de Vicfort's work "On Ambassadors and Foreign Ministers and the Duty of Their Affairs, and What an Ambassador Is and His Honor." The last documented mention of Postnikov dates back to 1713 and is associated with this book. From that moment on, his trace in history disappears.
Pallady Rogovsky: a runaway deacon who became a doctor of theology and then a rector
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, Russia saw an active penetration of Western culture. Pallady Rogovsky, whose biography is full of mysteries and ambiguities, became one of the most prominent representatives of this process. Although Rogovsky composed his own biography, later discovered documents revealed something else, which calls into question many of his claims.
The future Pallady was born into a simple family in the Kashin district, now known as the Tver region, on the lands of the Kalyazin Trinity-Makaryev Monastery. According to Russian historical sources, his date of birth is 1655, while foreign sources indicate 1665. His name was Feodor, although there is unconfirmed evidence that his name may have been Pavel. The surname Rogov or Rogusha is probably associated with his birthplace - the monastic village of Rog on the Nerl River.
At a young age, Feodor-Pavel took monastic vows under the name Palladius at the Savva-Vishera Monastery, located near Novgorod. After spending several years as a monk, he moved to Moscow, where he began serving under Leonty, the newly elevated Bishop of Tambov. Palladius was soon ordained a hierodeacon, his first priestly ordination. However, in 1684, Leonty was defrocked for bribery, after which Palladius returned to the capital.
During this time, the Likhudov brothers' school, which later became known as the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was actively functioning. Palladius, as he later recalled, zealously petitioned Patriarch Joachim for admission to Greek and Latin classes. Although his request was somewhat belated—the first six students had already begun their studies—Rogov nevertheless managed to join the group and become a deacon at the Epiphany Monastery.
Then there are discrepancies between what the hero of this story said about himself and what other sources claim.
Pallady reported that he studied at the Academy for a year and a half and left its walls in 1687. However, there is evidence that in 1687 and 1688 he attended receptions with Patriarch Joachim, and in 1688 he donated a book to the Trinity Monastery in Kalyazin. This step can be seen as his farewell to his homeland, since soon after, Pallady left for abroad. Later, he poetically explained his decision by the desire for "perfect learning," for which he was ready, like a pilgrim, to travel on foot to Poland. Thus, his path to knowledge became not only a personal but also a spiritual quest.
Pallady left the country in 1689 during the summer holidays at the Academy. It was probably under the influence of the Likhuds that he became interested in serious education. The departure occurred without the permission of the secular and ecclesiastical authorities, thus violating existing prohibitions. This placed Palladius in a vulnerable legal position both in Russia and abroad, but he apparently had no concerns about it. Abroad, he began using the name Rogovsky.
According to Palladius, he began his education at a Jesuit school in Vilna (now Vilnius), where he spent a year in infima, or lower class. Non-Catholics were accepted for only six months, and after this period, the Jesuits demanded that Palladius renounce Orthodoxy. In response, he went to Neisse in Silesia (present-day Nysa in Poland), where he studied poetry and versification.
He then moved to Olmütz in Moravia (now Olomouc in the Czech Republic), where he enrolled in a seminary founded by the Pope to train Catholic preachers among the peoples of Muscovy, Denmark, Pomerania, Livonia, and Prussia. Palladius was attracted to this school because it offered the opportunity to master rhetoric and other classical studies of the time, but admission required an oath of allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Palladius claimed he agreed to this because he aspired to the "higher sciences," but his oath was not sincere, but merely verbal.
After completing his basic course in the "liberal arts" at Olmütz, Rogowski decided to continue his education with the goal of deepening his knowledge of philosophy and theology. The Jesuits issued him a certificate of affiliation with the Uniates—representatives of a movement that sought to unite the Orthodox and Catholic churches under the leadership of the Pope. This movement is also known as the Greek Catholics. Relations between the Uniates and Orthodox Christians were complex, sometimes even hostile, highlighting the religious tensions of the time.
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The First Universities played a key role in the development of education and science. They emerged in the Middle Ages and became centers of knowledge and intellectual exchange. One of the first universities, the University of Bologna, was founded in 1088 and became a model for many educational institutions. The University of Paris, founded in the 12th century, introduced a strict organization and division into faculties into the educational process.
Important facts about the first universities include that they initially had no formal status and acted as communities of scholars and students. Instruction was conducted in Latin, which contributed to the dissemination of knowledge throughout Europe. Universities also became a place for the discussion of philosophical and theological issues, which contributed to the development of humanism.
Initially, students were educated primarily in the liberal arts, including grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Over time, faculties of medicine, law, and theology emerged, expanding the horizons of academic learning. Universities also became important centers for the creation and dissemination of scholarly works, which influenced the development of European culture.
An important aspect of the early universities was that they provided education for people of all social strata, which contributed to the rise of the educational level of society. By the end of the Middle Ages, universities had become important institutions that shaped the intellectual space of Europe and influenced the further development of education and science worldwide.
There are serious reasons to doubt the veracity of Rogovsky's claim that he did not apostatize from the Orthodox faith. In the 20th century, researchers discovered in the archives of the Catholic Church an official statement by the missionary Tobias Tikhvinsky, who served in the Moscow German Quarter in 1689. This document mentions that he converted "the venerable brother Palladius Rogovsky" to the "true faith," meaning Catholicism. This discovery casts doubt on the veracity of Rogowski's claims and highlights the importance of further research on this topic.
There is strong evidence to suggest that Rogowski was closely associated with the Moscow Catholic Pyotr Artemyev, who was exiled to Solovki for his Catholic views. After Rogowski escaped, Artemyev wrote him a letter urging him not to advertise his Moscow origins and to resist the temptation to return to his homeland. However, it is worth noting that Palladium later succumbed to this temptation.
After Olmütz, Rogowski headed to Rome, the center of Catholicism. From 1693 to 1698, he studied philosophy and theology at the Uniate College of St. Athanasius. This educational institution was under the direction of the Jesuits and was experiencing its heyday at the time. Many prominent Uniate figures studied here, and the school trained Catholic missionaries. The College's Marticular Table contained information about Rogovsky, confirming his studies and achievements at this significant educational institution. Feodor Rogoski was a monk of the Basilian Order and a native of Tver. He was born on February 8, 1665, to Simeon and Ksenia Rogoski. From February 15, 1693, he attended the College, where he studied Logic, Physics, and Theology, devoting three years to the latter. In Tver, he served as a deacon and was later ordained a priest with the permission of the Holy Father. Feodor held bachelor's and master's degrees in philosophy and theology, making him a doctor of both. He left the College on June 9, 1698. After completing his studies, Feodor participated in missionary work, but was poisoned by schismatics.
Discussing the topic of Rogovsky's "poisoning," it is worth noting that the college typically accepted students at age 14. However, Pallady was at least 28, and this did not pose a barrier for him. Immediately after entering, he submitted a petition for ordination as a presbyter, that is, a priest, in order to be connected with the college's church. As an illegal emigrant, he had nowhere else to go, and this decision became vital for him.
Rogovsky, possessing a profound knowledge of Latin, significantly outpaced his peers. In Rome, he successfully completed his studies and received degrees in philosophy and theology, becoming the first Russian doctor of theology. His achievements in education and science underscore the importance of studying classical languages and philosophy for the development of intellectual potential.
After completing his studies, as Pallady reported, he immediately decided to return to his homeland. He appealed to the Pope to send him to the Uniate monasteries of Little Russia, which were under the control of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Pope granted his request, and, according to Palladius, he fled to Venice to the viceroy of the Patriarch of Constantinople, Metropolitan Meletius of Philadelphia. Philadelphia is an ancient city in western Asia Minor, formerly part of the Byzantine Empire.
Rogovsky, according to rumors, repented before Meletius, who issued him a charter permitting him to ordain as a priest in the Orthodox Church. In Venice, Palladius met with the steward Prince Pyotr Golitsyn, who was studying maritime affairs on behalf of Peter I. Accompanied by Golitsyn, and armed with a charter from Meletius, he returned to Moscow unhindered.
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Godunov sought to introduce European education to Russia, but his plans were not realized. Despite his efforts to reform the educational system, obstacles from feudal lords and a lack of resources prevented the implementation of his plans. This period marked an important stage in Russian history, when the ideas of the European Enlightenment began to spark interest but faced serious challenges. Godunov understood the importance of education for the development of the state, but the prevailing circumstances prevented him from completing his work.
In this story, Rogovsky may not be entirely frank. At that time, Venice served not only as an important transport hub for travel from Europe to Russia but also as a stronghold of the Uniate Church. Metropolitan Meletius was a long-standing secret supporter of the Union and actively promoted its dissemination among the Orthodox community in Venice. While in Venice, Palladius also conducted correspondence, including a letter dated August 8, 1698, most likely addressed to the Catholic Cardinal Colloredo. These facts highlight the complex religious and political relations of the time, as well as Venice's role as a center of influence for Orthodox communities.
Dear and esteemed Lord, highly respected Patron! In connection with my upcoming trip to Muscovy, where our Tsar is also departing from Vienna, I feel the need to express to you, esteemed sovereign, my sincere devotion. Amid the uncertainty caused by internal unrest in the state, I want you to know: even from a distance, I remain faithful to the Roman Church, of which you, esteemed sovereign, are also a part. As I leave so far away, I wholeheartedly ask you not to refuse me your guidance and blessing.
It is possible that Palladius returned to his homeland with the knowledge or even on the advice of his Roman superiors in order to preach Catholicism. However, another version is also possible: he may have approached Catholics solely to gain knowledge, after which he severed ties with them, having achieved his goals. In any case, there is no information about his contacts with Catholics after his return to Russia, and it is difficult today to determine the sincerity of his attitude towards various churches.
In early 1699, upon arriving in Moscow, Rogovsky submitted a petition to Patriarch Adrian expressing his repentance. The Patriarch instructed Palladius to compose a "confessional work" describing his adventures and exposing and condemning the dogmas of "Latinism." After this, Rogovsky was forced to publicly repent.
Rogovsky was sent to serve his penance at the Novospassky Monastery in Moscow, where the Likhud brothers, who had been suspended from teaching at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy five years earlier, were housed. They were accused of excessive "Latinism" and a preoccupation with physics and philosophy instead of teaching other subjects. By April, Rogovsky had completed his "Confession of Faith," in which he described the reasons for his departure from Orthodoxy and laid out the errors of the Roman Catholic Church. This document became an important testimony to his spiritual struggle and search for true faith during a difficult historical period.
In June 1699, in a public act of repentance, Rogovsky denounced Catholicism before the entire council and the people. The patriarch, accepting his repentance, recognized the rank of Palladius, which he had received in the Uniate Church. This event marked a significant moment in the history of the Orthodox Church and the relationship between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Rogovsky, by speaking out against the Catholic faith, demonstrated his commitment to Orthodox traditions, which influenced the religious circles of the time.
The fugitive monk quickly achieved forgiveness, and his career soon soared. Historians note that Meletius's charter, which mentioned his conversion to the Uniate faith, played a significant role in this. This information became known in Moscow just a few months later, but it had no significant impact on Rogovsky's fate.
In 1700, Rogovsky was appointed abbot (hegumen) of the Zaikonospassky Monastery and one of the teachers at the academy located at the monastery. At the same time, Peter I established the position of rector, responsible for the conduct of students. Thus, Palladius, who had recently confessed before the council and the people, became the first rector of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. This appointment played a significant role in the development of the Russian educational system, as the academy became a center for the education and training of clergy and secular scholars.
Reading is an important aspect of our daily experience. Reading not only develops thinking but also enriches vocabulary, allows for deeper exploration of various topics, and broadens horizons. It's important to select quality sources of information and literature to gain relevant and useful knowledge. Regular reading helps improve concentration, develop analytical skills, and develop critical thinking. Maintain a reading habit by choosing books and articles that align with your interests and goals. It's not only useful but also enjoyable.
Lobachevsky not only became an outstanding scholar but also proved himself an effective administrator as rector. His innovative approaches to education and the organization of research played a key role in the development of university education. Under his leadership, the university achieved significant success, which positively impacted the institution's scientific reputation. Lobachevsky created conditions for the free creativity of students and faculty, which contributed to the development of new ideas and scientific research. His leadership qualities and commitment to excellence made his name a symbol of progress in education. Thus, Lobachevsky's contribution as an administrator remains no less significant than his academic achievements.
Tsar Peter I sought to create an educated society oriented toward European traditions, which was reflected in the country's educational system. In this context, he chose to overlook Rogovsky's apostasy in order to provide the academy with the necessary knowledge. Peter I actively developed ties with the West, which led to changes in the curriculum: Greek was eliminated, and Latin, previously abolished, was reintroduced. European-educated teachers from Kyiv and Lviv were invited to the academy, which contributed to improving the quality of education. The institution received a new name—the Slavic-Latin Academy—to better reflect its goals. Rogovsky, with his knowledge acquired in European Jesuit schools, was ideally suited to the task of "Latinizing" the academy, which facilitated the integration of European educational standards into the Russian system.
Rogovsky, who served as rector, did not hold the position for long: in January 1703, he died at the age of 37 or 47, depending on the sources regarding his birth date. A brief account of him, presented at the Uniate College of St. Athanasius, mentions that he was "poisoned by schismatics," as Orthodox Christians were called at the time. However, there is no confirmation of this version, although his opponents in Moscow undoubtedly had their ill-wishers. An alternative version holds that his death was caused by health problems caused by the stress of converting twice and the fear of punishment for it. Palladium left behind a significant legacy - an impressive library containing more than 500 volumes.
